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    "text": " It will just be a minute more as we get self-paced running and things like that in our presentation. The presentation was originally developed for an hour and 30 minutes. However, this time slot is an hour and 50, I mean 50 minutes and we've already filled like 7. Therefore, we may run a little bit late if we need to leave early. However, I will go through the first 20 slides in about 2 minutes because we don't have time to get them in. And Sherry does the interesting slides, so I will introduce her soon. My name is Jamie Butler. I'm from Rootkid.com. This is Sherry Sparks. And we're developing a project called Shadow Walker and it's to hide rootkits. You can find a description of this talk probably later on Rootkid.com. It's in the source code. I believe Sherry has proposed it. Also, it will be in FRAG 63. If it hasn't appeared online already, probably in the next week or two it will be there. If you don't understand much about rootkits or you are new to the Windows world of rootkits, you can go to Rootkid.com. We post what's there for free and there's a lot of source code for free. Nothing there is for free. Or you can apply for a rootkit supporting the Windows kernel by Greg Kogel and myself. So we'll get started with Shadow Walker. So a quick flow through. Rootkits, they don't propagate themselves. They're not like a virus. They're just here to provide stuff. So the attacker gets on the box and they try to maintain presence. They don't want to keep using their zero day to come back all the time to the machine. So they install a rootkit. A rootkit is there to hide their presence and also to give them future access at a later date. Rootkits can also be used for law enforcement for things like a sneak and peek or a properly executed search warrant. There's two levels of protection within the Windows and Linux operating system. There's basically two rings, ring 0 and ring 3. Ring 3 is user land processes. They are unprivileged. Ring 0 is kernel land. Once you're in ring 0, your kernel rootkit can do whatever you want. Operating system provides basically an intermediary between upper level user processes and things that they want to query the operating system for. So I want to open a port. The operating system does that for you. And then hands it back to the user land process. They also provide an interface between user land processes and the lower hardware. So if you have a ring 0 kernel rootkit, you are just like the operating system, you are a man in the middle. Some of the different OS components that a rootkit may want to attack would be the IOManager. You can install keyloggers. Sharing has a project on rootkit.com that's a keyboard sniffer. And you can also attack the file system. You can return file filter driver and interface between every single access of the hard drive. The object manager has things like processes and threads that it uses to keep bookkeeping. And you can attack the object manager in order to hide your processes and threads. That's enough of that configuration manager. You can use that to hide registries. So first generation of rootkits, what were they? These were simple infringement replacement programs on the hard drive. They may include the Unix login program, LS, ES, so on and so forth. Second generation rootkits. These started to be more sophisticated. These modified static tables within the kernel are within the upper levels of the operating system themselves. So you can replace the import address table of a PE file and alter the execution path of any command. You can also alter the system call table within the kernel and ring zero and change what function actually gets executed within the kernel when the user requests it. Third generation rootkits. We term these... they use DCOM, direct kernel object manipulation. These actually don't hook anything because hooks are a bit easier to detect. Third generation actually manipulate the data structures in memory. So there's no code... you don't alter the code at all, you just alter the data structures themselves. This is almost undetectable. Data structures come and go very frequently and they're constantly changing. That's why they're in the data structure. This is very hard to detect. And we'll talk about how you can use this to hide processes and threads if you wanted. Or you can use it to hide drivers, escalate process privileges using tokens, etc. So real quick, about two years ago at one of the black ads, and all the slides are online, you can see process hiding with DCOM. I also mentioned a little bit last year when I talked about Python. What the kernel uses to keep track of all the processes is this list of active processes. Every e-process block you see there represents an individual process in the system. This individual process could be your little hacker program. It's doing things and you don't want the system administrator to know you're there. If you simply unlink... at the bottom of the slide you see that there's a series of links. If you simply unlink a process that you want to have hidden, it will disappear when you try to list it out. So when you run task manager, etc., it won't be there. Now, current rootkit detection methods, there's basically four types. You don't have time to go into all these. But just quickly, behavioral, integrity, signature-based, and difference-based. Some of the AB products are basically an example of signature-based. Integrity checkers, such as tripwire, check some of the disk files so that if you replace it with a fresh one, you'll be found. Difference-based approaches is kind of a new thing. Microsoft's doing it. F-Secure's doing it. Sysinternals. What this is, is it does some kind of low-level scan within the kernel by following structures directly. It tries to get a list of things like files and processes, registry keys, etc. Then it does an upper-level API call. If there's a difference, it knows something's up. Behavioral detection. In this, you try to detect the presence, the effects of rootkit. So you might want to look for alteration in the execution path, or what is actually executed within the program. Some of the system calls, or the ordering, etc. We don't have time to go into more of that. Integrity checking, exactly. It's a CRC. This could be on-disk or in-memory. However, hardly anyone is doing it in-memory. Signature-based scan memory or on-disk for a particular set of bytes that represents the mal code. So, we have a really powerful way to hide rootkit, or hide processes, etc. within the kernel by modifying all these data structures. However, if you look for our driver, because we are in the kernel, so we have a kernel-level driver, you can just do a simple scan, like a signature scan, for the presence of the malware. And that's not very good. So what we want to do is to try to shake it up, so even if you scan memory, you can't detect all that decomp stuff that's in here in the fu-rootkit. You want to make it so you can't detect our rootkit within the kernel. So, this is a problem that viruses have faced for a long time, and they use things like polymorphism and stuff to get around it. However, in the kernel, it gets more problematic to do really good polymorphism code. Also, no one's doing it other than a holy father and his hacker defender. And you have to get him to handle that. And I think it's like 40 heroes in the county does it. So, really quickly, we're going to walk through how we deploy this in memory and share it with people. Thank you, Jamie. I'm going to be discussing the technical implementation of ShadowWalker, which is our rootkit hiding technology. Like Jamie said, polymorphism has not really been seen a lot in rootkits so far, but it's not really an optimal approach for a rootkit. Viruses need to hide their code. Rootkits not only need to hide their code, but they also need to hide changes to operating system components. Polymorphism is not necessarily an optimal solution for that when you consider that you have the memory-based equivalence of, say, tripwire or other types of integrity checkers. So, basically, what we wanted to do is we wanted to figure out a way to hide in memory such that we actually hook the memory of the system without actually changing the code at all. And that gave rise to ShadowWalker, which we're coining kind of as a prototype for the fourth generation of rootkit technology. Basically, the alternative to polymorphism is virtual memory subversion. Basically, what we're going to be showing you today is a proof-of-concept demonstration that a rootkit is capable of transparently controlling the view of memory seen by user applications, kernel drivers, and the operating system itself. Now, the cool thing about this technology is the fact that there's a minimal performance impact. Because we exploit some features in the hardware, that means that basically our memory hook engine hiding a rootkit is virtually undetectable. It has no slowdown or system performance hit. Obviously, this makes this type of technology attractive to not only a rootkit, but also to maybe a virus, or a worm, or spyware applications. Just a few implications of virtual memory subversion. For a long time, rootkit scanners relied upon the integrity of the operating system API. Like Jamie mentioned, ever since the second generation of rootkits, rootkits have been hooking the API, and upper-level processes can no longer trust the results returned to them by the API, either the user-level API or the kernel-level API, depending upon where the rootkit is hooking. So basically, rootkit scanners have gotten a little bit smarter. They're starting to realize that they can't rely upon operating system APIs anymore. But even those rootkit scanners that don't rely upon operating system APIs, they still rely upon the integrity of the virtual memory system. So therefore, when a security scanner does a read of a certain memory address, it expects to see the data that's actually stored at that address. What we're proposing is actually to return some data that is, in fact, not actually stored at that address. So basically, there are two implications here. If we can control a scanner's memory reads, then we can fool signature scanners and potentially make a known rootkit or virus code immune to an in-memory signature scan. Because basically, the scanner will access the range of memory where the rootkit code is stored, and it will be returned data which is a clean copy or does not have the rootkit code. We can also fool integrity checkers. Those kind of checkers, like Jamie Butler, presented a talk on a tool called Vice, which basically attempts to detect hooks. Hooks typically work by replacing the beginning of the function prolog in an API with a jump instruction to a stub, which is the rootkit code. So basically, under normal situations, you would not expect to see the first instruction in an API to be a jump instruction. The normal code would be such stuff as stack setup code, allocation of local variables. So basically, Jamie uses heuristics like this to determine if functions are hooked. Basically, the implications for this is that if we are subverting that particular function in memory, the scanner would perform a read, and it would receive a clean copy of that API function code, yet the actual code that it's executing is actually the hook code. Since we're going to be talking about the subversion of virtual memory, we're going to need to do a little bit of a review. This is stuff that is normally covered in a college-level operating systems class, but I know that for most people, we probably need to review some of this stuff. First thing we're going to talk about is virtual address space layout, and then we're going to talk about some of the concepts of virtual memory. We're going to go over the ideas of paging and segmentation, page tables and PTEs, how virtual-to-physical address translation actually occurs, what the page fault handler does, and then some performance issues associated with paging, and how those are actually mitigated using a hardware solution, or the translation look-aside buffer. Finally, we'll talk about different memory access types, and some little eccentricities with the x86 architecture. So basically what you have here is a layout of the two most common layouts for the Windows virtual address space. The first one breaks the virtual address space up into two main components. Like Jamie said, we have two modes of operation under Windows. We have a privileged mode, which is basically kernel-in, and we have a non-privileged mode, which is basically user-in. The memory address space is arranged similarly to that. The lower two gigabytes correspond to user-in address space. That's going to contain your application code, DLL code. The upper two gigabytes is going to be where the operating system kernel is. In the upper two gigabytes, you're going to have N2S kernel, PAL, hardware abstraction layer, boot drivers. You're going to have key operating system structures, the process objects that Jamie was talking about, process page tables, and then non-page pool and cache memory. Alternatively, we have a second address space layout, which has been used on some of the Server 2003 systems, which actually allows you to expand the user address space up to three gigabytes. By far the most common layout is going to be the one where it's split in half. So, basically, what is the main idea behind virtual memory? Basically, the idea is we want to separate the virtual from the physical address spaces, or separate the virtual and physical address spaces. By that, what I mean is the virtual address space is the size of it. It's going to be defined by the width of your memory bus. So, if you have a 32-bit system, that means that you have the ability to address 2 to the 32, or approximately four gigabytes of continuous memory locations. So, therefore, your virtual address space spans from zero up to four gigabytes. In contrast, most of us don't really have four gigabytes of RAM installed on our system unless we're really lucky. So, therefore, we can say that our physical address space is constrained by the amount of RAM on our system. And the amount of RAM is most likely going to be less than the four gigabyte limit for the virtual address space. So, basically, virtual memory concerns managing these virtual and physical address spaces by dividing them into fixed-size blocks. If those blocks are all the same size, we have a paging architecture. If those blocks may be variable sizes, it's a segmentation architecture. The x86 architecture is actually a combination of segmentation and paging. However, for the purposes of our talk, we're focusing upon the paging architecture, because that's the level that we're going to subvert. As far as how this maps, there's actually mapping information that actually maps a virtual block to a physical block. And the OS is what actually maintains this mapping information and determines which virtual blocks map to which physical blocks. Like I said before, the virtual address space may be larger than the physical address space. And also because the OS is managing this mapping, virtually contiguous memory blocks do not need to be physically contiguous. This actually shows an illustration of those two points on the previous slide. As you can see, we have our virtual address space divided up into blocks. Under a paging architecture, we call these blocks pages. The physical address space is smaller than the virtual address space. It's also divided into fixed-size blocks. This is termed frames. Basically, as you can see, the virtually contiguous blocks do not necessarily have to be physically contiguous. So, what actually maintains this mapping information that the OS uses? This mapping information is contained in page tables. And page tables consist of entries called PTEs, or page table entries. Page table entries contain at least two pieces of useful information. They contain status information, and they contain mapping information. The page frame number bits are the bits that actually describe where that page actually maps to in physical memory. There are also a bunch of status bits, as you can see. A few of the most important ones would be the V there for valid. That's going to determine if the page is actually resident in memory, or if it's been paged out to the disk. You have the writable bit, which is going to be concerned with protection, whether or not that page is read-only, or whether it's going to be writable as well. You also have some bits, the cache-disabled, the dirty bit. These are bits that the operating system uses in its virtual memory management for page swapping and such. And then the last bit of interest is going to be the global bit. The global bit is interesting because it determines whether or not this particular mapping information will be flushed from the hardware cache on a context switch. This actually becomes important later on. So, basically, here's an illustration of the big picture, just to kind of summarize all these ideas. We have our virtual address space layout divided into user space and kernel space. We have our pages, which are the divisions of the virtual address space. We have process page tables located in the kernel memory section. Process page tables contain PTEs, which contain status information and mapping information, which will basically say where those pages are located out in physical memory. So, how do you go from an address to actually figuring out where that particular page is in the page table? Basically, virtual addresses can encode the information necessary to index into page tables. Page tables may actually be single-level or multi-level. The x86 maintains a two-level paging architecture. Basically, we divide the virtual address into two pieces. We're going to divide it into the virtual page number, which is going to contain the page table indexing information, and we divide it into the byte index, which is going to contain an offset from the physical frame in physical memory. So, basically, the virtual page number, in this case, since we have a two-level architecture, basically what that means is not only do we have a page table, we also have a page directory. And, basically, the page directory is a table of pointers to page tables. And the page tables, of course, mean pointers to physical frames. This actually is used to... a two-level scheme is used to actually save memory, since the page directory is going to have to be resident. So, basically, in this case, our virtual page number is actually divided into two pieces. We have to be able to figure out the index into the page directory so we can locate the correct page table, and then we have to figure out the index into the page table so we can locate the correct page frame. So, basically, under x86, the upper ten bits in the virtual address are going to provide your index into the page directory, while the middle ten bits are going to provide your index into the page table. This slide gets a little bit complicated, but I'm going to give it a go here to try to explain it. Basically, there's a number of steps involved in virtual-to-physical address translation. This is performed by the hardware. The first step is going to be to locate the page directory, the base address, the page directory and memory. The page directory base is actually located in the k-process block. The physical address is also located in CR3, which is the control register on the processor. So, basically, the first step is to locate the base of the page directory. The second step is going to be to locate the actual entry in the page directory that contains the pointer to the page table that we need. So, basically, we're going to extract the upper ten bits from the virtual address and use that to add to the page directory base to obtain the entry in the page directory table. Now, the contents of this page directory entry is basically the pointer to a page table, or the base physical address of the page table and memory. So, now at this point, we have the base address of the page table, and now we're trying to get to the PTE, or the entry in the page table. So, to get to the page table entry, now we do the same type of thing. We take the middle ten bits of the virtual address and use that to add to the base address of the page table, and we now get the actual page table entry, which is going to contain the pointer to the page frame in physical memory. So, now at this point, we have a pointer to the page frame, and we're actually looking for some byte within that frame. So, it's finally at this point that the actual byte index comes in, and we add that to the base address of the physical frame to actually resolve the full physical address. Like we said earlier, the physical memory may be smaller than the amount of virtually addressable memory you have, so therefore the OS may need to move some pages from main memory out to the disk to satisfy current memory demands. Basically, when the OS does this, it marks the PTE for the page in question as invalid, writes it out to the disk, and the next time that page is accessed, it's going to generate a page fault. A page fault is basically just an interrupt that is going to cause a vector to an interrupt service routine, which in this case is going to be the page fault handler. There are actually several conditions where a page fault can occur. The most common condition is going to be the case where the page table entry is marked invalid, and that page has been swapped out to the disk and needs to be brought in. There's a little caveat to that, because not only does the PTE need to be marked invalid, that entry cannot be present inside the TLB, or the hardware cache of virtual to physical mappings. This becomes very important later on. The second situation where you can have a memory protection violation is going to be, basically, user mode code attempting to access kernel memory, or perhaps an attempt to write to memory that's marked as read-only. For all of you guys that I lost on that previous slide of virtual to physical translation, I have a little bit clearer one that shows the whole page fault path. Okay. First thing, you have a memory access. So the first thing we do is we need to look it up in the page directory to resolve the actual page table. In this case, it's present. So we can move on and go out to the page table. Now, in the page table, we're trying to look up actually where the physical frame is. In this case, that particular PTE has been marked invalid, and a page fault is generated. This causes the page fault handler to be invoked. The page fault handler now is responsible for issuing the disk.io to go out to the page file and load that frame back into main memory. Once it's loaded back into memory, it now marks the PTE as valid. As you can see, some people would say that paging is not such a good idea. This is because there's this de-performance hint associated with paging. Basically, we take one memory reference and we basically turn it into three memory accesses. So we're cutting our performance by a factor of three. Basically, the first thing we have to access is the page directory. That's one memory reference. We have to access the page table. There's another memory reference. Now we have to actually go out and get the byte in the correct physical address. There's our third memory reference. So actually, in the best case, every single memory access requires three memory accesses to resolve the virtual to physical address. In the worst case, not only do we need three memory accesses, now we might potentially need two disk.ios. Because since we have a two-level paging scheme, our page tables may be non-present and our actual page frames may be non-present as well. So therefore, you may have up to two additional disk.ios. So as you can see, paging introduces a speed performance hit. Hardware designers found this to be unacceptable and they developed a solution for this to help mitigate this problem. Their solution was the translation look-aside buffer. The TLV is basically a high-speed hardware cache, generally implemented in associative memory, that holds the most frequently used virtual to physical mappings. So basically, the TLV caches the information held in the PTEs for certain pages that are used frequently. The TLV is actually a lot smaller than main memory, which means that it's possible that an entry in the TLV could actually be evicted if another page that maps to that TLV entry needs to be loaded into the TLV. So basically, the TLV is actually first on the memory access path. It sits in front of the page table path. So therefore, on the memory access, the TLV is actually searched first, before we ever even go out to the page tables. Since it is high-speed associative memory, that means that a reference found in the TLV can be resolved much, much faster than it can be resolved by even going out and doing a single memory reference in main memory. If that reference is actually found in the TLV, we say it was picked. If it was not found, we say that we had a miss. The x86 actually uses a split TLV architecture. And what I mean by that is there's actually two TLVs. There's one that holds translations for code, that's the iTLV, and there's another one that holds translations for data, that's the dTLV. I should note that modern TLVs have extremely high hit rates, which means that most translations are actually resolved via the TLV cache, as opposed to actually having to go out to the page tables, which significantly increases performance. This is just a simple example of a TLV search. Basically, the TLV is a cache. It consists of two parts. You have a tag, which in this case is going to be the virtual page number, and then you have the corresponding frame that maps to that virtual page number in the data section of the cache line. Basically, when a memory reference occurs, the TLV tags are going to be searched in parallel to see if they can find a match on that virtual page number. If they can, the data, or the corresponding physical frame mapping, is going to be returned. In this case, we had a TLV hit on virtual page 17, and its corresponding frame is 84. So, basically, here I have an illustration of the memory access path that includes a TLV. We're also going to stick with the x86 architecture, which actually has a split TLV. So that means that on a memory access, code accesses are going to be checked in the iTLV. So, in this case, we have a hit on the iTLV. We now have the corresponding frame, which is 132, and we can go directly out to physical memory. In this case, as you can see, since we had a TLV hit, we were able to completely bypass the page tables. It may be possible that we don't have a TLV hit. We could get a miss. And what's even worse than a miss, now that we have to go out to the page tables, now we might actually get a page fault, which will kill performance even further. So, in this case, our memory access is a code access. It goes out to the iTLV, searches it, it's not there, so now we have a miss. So, now we have to go out to the page tables. In this case, we go out to the page tables, and we find something we need is not present. So, we have a page fault. Now the OS page fault handler has to be invoked. It has to go out to the disk, bring that frame into memory, and finally mark that PTE as being present before the access can be completely resolved. So, basically, we have three memory access types. Everyone's familiar with these. We have read, write, and execute. Unfortunately, a little caveat to the x86 architecture is we actually only have two memory access types. We actually have read-execute and read-write-execute. By that, I mean the execute access is implied to all memory. This poses a slight problem. In some cases, we might like to actually differentiate between execute access and read-write access. One common place where this might be the case would be the implementation of non-executable memory. This is used as a buffer overflow protection scheme. Basically, you have your stack space, which is typically readable and writable. I mean, you store data on the stack. But normally, the stack does not contain executing code unless a buffer overflow attack is in progress. So, therefore, heuristically, if we were able to detect an execute access over a read-write access on the stack, we could say if we detect an execute, that heuristically, there's a good probability that we're in progress with buffer overflow attack. Now, the little caveat here is, like we said, x86 doesn't let us distinguish between read-write and execute. So, basically, we have not had hardware support up to this point. We do now have some hardware support. But previously, there was a project called PAX. Basically, PAX implemented read-write-no-execute or non-executable memory semantics using strictly software support. This was before there was any hardware support for non-executable memory. Windows XP Service Pack 2 and Server 2003 Service Pack 1 now also implement software support in the form of what Microsoft calls Data Execution Prevention or DEP. As a side note, hardware support has been added for non-executable memory onto 64-bit processors as well as the Pentium 4. Well, in the case of a rootkit, it's also kind of advantageous to be able to distinguish between executable and read-write access to a range of memory. Basically, we're going to take an offensive stance on the PAX technology, which, it's been around for a while. This technique's been around for a while. But so far, it hasn't really been shown how you could invert that technique for malicious purposes. So, basically, we want to hide code. So, we want to differentiate between read-write-and-execute. So, the idea is, if we have a read access of the code section of our rootkit driver, for example, that's going to be a very strong heuristic that a scanner's trying to locate us. So, basically, what we would want to do in that case is we want our rootkit code to run. But if a scanner tries to read it, we want to basically return an image of that memory that does not contain the rootkit code, or contains something clean, in the case of a modification to the operating system. So, basically, what we're proposing here is we're going to do an implementation that is the inverse of PAX. That is, it's an implementation of execute, allowed, but diverted read-write memory semantics. We're going to use the PAX technique that PAX discovered to implement non-executable memory. But, in this case, we're going to use it to hide a rootkit. So, like I said, the technique is not totally new, but the application is somewhat new. So, basically, there's three implementation issues here. First, we need a way to filter, execute, and read-write accesses. Step one. Second, we need a way to fake the read-write accesses once we detect them. Obviously, we don't want the scanner to receive the correct data when it reads our rootkit memory. Lastly, we need to ensure that performance is not adversely affected. Obviously, this would not be a viable solution if, when we install our rootkit, the system administrator notices that his machine is suddenly running really, really slow. So, to solve the first problem, basically, we said earlier that if we mark the PTE as invalid, the next memory access that occurs to that page is going to generate a page fault. So, basically, that means that we can trap memory accesses by marking their page table entries as invalid, and basically hooking the page fault handler and replacing the operating system's page fault handler. In the actual page fault handler, we have access to some interesting information. We have the saved instruction pointer. We also have the virtual address where the fault occurred. So, therefore, if our instruction pointer equals the address of where the fault occurred, we can say that this was an execute access. Otherwise, it's going to be a read-write access. There's one important thing to note here, and that is the fact that our memory hook for the rootkit has to work safely with the operating system's memory management, because the operating system's resolving page faults all the time. So, that means, in practical terms, that if we're going to mark pages not present to capture memory accesses, then we also must be able to distinguish whether those memory accesses are a result of someone trying to access the hidden page, or a result of normal operating system paging activity. In order to satisfy that, we actually impose two constraints. The first constraint could be that pages that are hidden are required to be a non-paged memory. That means there's no possibility that the OS could page that file out to the disk. The second constraint could be, if you're using pageable memory, that you use an operating system API to lock it down. So, once you're able to detect execute from read-write, well, now comes the issue of, well, how are we actually going to fake the read-write accesses? So, basically, this is the technique that was shown in PAX, that it used to implement the inverse of what we're going to talk about, and that is, we're going to desynchronize the hardware caches, the TLBs. Like I said, the x86 has two of them. It has one for code, which is searched on execute. It has one for data, which is searched on read-write. So, therefore, a memory access, under normal situation, the ITLB is going to contain virtual page number and corresponding physical frame, and the DTLB is going to contain the same thing. So, in this case, for virtual page number 12, we see it maps to frame 2. For the DTLB, it also maps to frame 2. Under normal situations, read-write and execute, they all map to the same physical frame. However, what if we could desynchronize them? What if we could have the ITLB to actually map off to a different physical frame than the DTLB? So, basically, the idea here is that the ITLB contains a pointer to a frame which contains the rootkit code, and the DTLB contains a pointer to the frame which either has a clean copy of something or some random garbage, which is not the rootkit code. So, basically, since all these translations are performed at the hardware level, this is going to be transparent to the application program, to the kernel driver, or even to the operating system. So, basically, once we've decided that we're going to desynchronize the TLBs, the question is, well, how do you actually do this? TLBs are almost entirely hardware controlled. However, there is a little bit of support for software control, which, in this case, happens to be enough support to implement this. First of all, we have the capability to flush the TLB. Basically, we can flush the entire TLB by reloading register CR3. This normally occurs on a context switch. On a context switch, typically, CR3 will be reloaded, which ends up flushing the entire TLB, except for global entries, which will remain in the TLB. This is mainly a performance enhancement for operating system components, which will remain resident at all times. Also, we also have a method of not only flushing the entire TLB, but of flushing an individual entry in the TLB. That would be the invalidate page instruction. So, now that we've established that we can flush the TLB, how about loading it? It is possible, actually, to load the TLBs separately, which means that actually executing a data access loads the DTLB, but not the ITLB. Conversely, executing a call loads the ITLB, but not the DTLB. So, therefore, it is possible to discretely load the two TLBs separately and desynchronize them. So, basically, our proof-of-concept implementation consists of two main components. We have the memory hook engine, which has a hook installation component, which sets up the hook, and then a custom page fault handler, which basically is responsible for filtering execute read-write accesses and correctly manually loading up the right TLB. Also, our second component is going to be a modified FU rootkit. So, basically, we've modified Jamie's rootkit to work in collusion with our ShadowWalker. So, basically, on memory hook installation, there are several steps that have to be performed. First of all, since we're going to mark pages not present, we need to install a new page fault handler. Once we've done that, on a page fault, we're going to need to be able to determine, relatively quickly, if that fault is due to one of our hidden pages being accessed, or if it's due to the actual operating system performing normal paging activity. So, in order to do that, we just insert that page into a simple hash table, so we can perform a quick lookup. Next, we mark the page not present. And then the last step is really the most important here, because we said that the TLB is first on the memory access path, which means that a page fault is generated, one, when the PTD is marked present, but like I said earlier, two, when that entry is not present in the TLB. So, therefore, we perform an explicit flush of that page that we're hiding. This means that on the next memory access, we will be able to generate a page fault. If you could please hold your questions to end, we'll have time for questions. So, basically, the custom page fault handler's main responsibility is to filter, read, write, and execute accesses for hooked pages. If it determines that the page is not a hooked page, meaning it's just a normal operating system page fault, it passes it down to the OS handler. If it is a page fault due to a hidden page, it's either going to manually load the ITLB or manually load the DTLB, depending upon the type of access. Most memory references will be resolved via the TLB path. So, intuitively, you would think that you would be generating a lot of page faults, it would take a big hit in performance. Not the case, because we're using the hardware caching mechanism. We're just simply synchronizing it. So, basically, we will still have page faults, but page faults are not as many as you would think, since the TLB path will handle most of the memory references. Page faults on the hooked pages will, of course, occur on the first execute or data access to the page. Remember, we had to flush it, flush the TLB, when we instantiated the hook. It will occur on the TLB cache line eviction. So, it's possible that the mapping for that hooked page got evicted from the TLB. Well, the next time that a memory access occurs, it will now generate a page fault, which the page fault handler will now reload the correct mapping into the TLB, and that memory access will go through. Likewise, the last case would be on an explicit TLB flush context switch, if the global bit has not been enabled. So, basically, here we have some really rudimentary page fault handler pseudocode for what's going on. So, basically, we are only hiding kernel pages right now. So, we're going to disregard user land accesses. So, in the page fault handler, we want this to be as efficient as possible, so we don't want to tie things up if we're not interested in handling this fault. So, the first thing we do is we just check if the processor mode is in user mode. If it is, we pass it down. We're not dealing with user mode. If the faulting address is a user page, we're also going to pass it down, because we don't hook user pages. In contrast, if the fault is from a hidden page, now we're going to check if it's a read-write or an execute. If it's an execute, we're going to jump over to load the ITLB. If it's a data access, we're going to jump over to the load DTLB code. Basically, in the load ITLB, what we're going to do is we're going to basically replace that physical frame information in the PTE with the mapping for the actual physical frame that contains the rootkit code, because we want it to execute. We're going to temporarily mark that PTE as present to allow the memory access to go through. We're going to perform a call into the page, which is going to load up the ITLB. I should note here, I forgot to put this on the previous page, that we do have to perform a call. Basically, that means that we need to find an empty byte in our given page that we can insert a return-off code to. In practice, if you're going to type sections, say in a driver, those are PE sections, so therefore there's going to be some alignment, so therefore there's normally some empty space in there. So you shouldn't really have trouble finding one byte that you can just patch a return into. So therefore, basically we just make a call to this point in the page where the return has been patched, and it returns control back to the pagefault handler, and in process, loads up the ITLB. Finally, the PTE is marked as non-present again, so we can catch subsequent accesses. We also replace the frame back with the original innocent-looking frame, and we go ahead and we return back to the faulting application, or driver as the case may be, without passing down to the OS. The OS doesn't need to have any knowledge of this default. If it's a DTLB load, basically the steps are a little bit simpler, because by default, we're going to maintain the clean mapping in the PTE. So therefore, we just mark it present, perform a read access, and then mark it non-present again. And then, of course, return without passing down to the OS. So, basically all this information so far concerns how you would hide executable code. Okay, we're running out of time, so I'm going to go ahead and skip this section on data hiding. This slide should be available probably on rootkit.com within the next week or so. So basically, I'm going to move ahead and we're just going to talk a little bit about the rootkit here. The rootkit is, of course, the object that we are implementing this process on to actually hide it. It's proof of concept. It doesn't really do anything malicious. It just hides processes. It runs as a system thread. It has no dependence upon user land initialization, which means it has no symbolic link or no functional device in the driver. And also, basically, we envision this rootkit as being an in-memory rootkit, meaning that ideally it would be installed via a kernel-level exploit. Obviously, if this rootkit driver is sitting on the disk, we open up a whole new can of worms for detection and basically invalidate all these faulty things that we're trying to do. So basically, we never want it to reside on the disk. This is a perfectly reasonable thing if we consider attacking, say, a server system, which is infrequently rebooted. Chances are high that this rootkit will sit in memory, and by the time we come back, it'll still be there. So, lastly, the impact on system performance. Like we said, modern TLBs have high hit rates. That means most translations will be resolved via the TLB and not the page fault path, which means that we're going to have very little performance hit. I can't speak from a performance metric point of view here, because we haven't really done any rigorous testing on performance, but I can say that, subjectively speaking, hiding Jamie's rootkit with this ShadowWalker memory hook engine, there is no subjective, noticeable performance impact. Clearly, the performance impact will probably vary depending upon the number of pages you're having to hide. In this case, hiding a kernel driver, how many pages do you really have? You have four or five sections in a PE, portable executable, so chances are you only have four or five pages. If they're page-aligned, four or five pages is really negligible. So, for small numbers of pages, we haven't observed any performance impact at all. As this is not really a weaponized attack tool, there are a number of known limitations. Jamie and I have done this basically on our spare time. So, basically, we've not implemented a fully productized or weaponized version. So, first of all, there's no PAE support. PAE basically extends addressability from 32 to 36 bits. We don't support that yet. There's no hyper-threading or multi-processor support. There's clear issues with regards to synchronization problems involved with porting this up to a multi-processor system. We've not addressed those yet. Currently, we only hide 4K-sized kernel pages. We are theoretically capable of hiding 4MB pages. The x86 architecture actually has two page sizes, 4K and 4MB. The main point of interest with the 4MB pages are going to be hiding of NTOS kernel, which is sitting on a 4MB page. Obviously, an interest to a rootkit developer who wants to install hooks into the operating system kernel. Currently, we can't hide NTOS kernel. There's some technical difficulties with that, which we're working to resolve. But it's quite effective for hiding drivers and other drivers, such as maybe Indus, which sit in the 4K page range. So we could hide the hooks in the network drivers, for example. As far as detection, I'm going to go over this real, real brief. I think we're really running out of time here. First of all, like we said earlier, we have to make the constraint that we have non-paged memory, that we're marking non-present, so we can differentiate our page faults from OS page faults. Obviously, non-present pages in non-paged memory are heuristically abnormal. If that's sufficient to indicate that a rootkit's installed, highly debatable. But it's still abnormal. Obviously, the page fault handler code itself cannot be marked not present, because that would imply that we're marking the page containing the page fault handler as not present. We would end up with lots of recursive problems of recursive re-entry. Therefore, the solution for hiding the page fault handler, we have to fall back to more tried-and-true approaches. It's small, it's written in assembly, there's no APIs, so polymorphism seems like a fairly reasonable solution to that problem. Likewise, it's also difficult to conceal hooks on the IDT. Currently, this proof of concept makes no effort to conceal the IDT hooks. Yes, this rootkit is very easily detected right now because of this, but that was not really our goal. We're just showing a proof of concept. Right now, we're really running short, so I'm going to proceed to the demo and skip the last couple slides. I know we're late, so if anyone has any other engagements, feel free to head on out, but I am going to go ahead and perform the demo for anyone that's interested. I'm going to do a GUI version of this demo. I have a hardcore Softice version if anyone wants to see after the talk. Basically, the first thing I'm going to do is... Right now, I'm using Driver Monitor. It's a tool with the Softice driver suite. It allows you to load a kernel driver. The first thing I'm going to do is I'm going to go ahead and load up Jamie's rootkit. Our driver has started successfully. Now, if we enter Softice... we can get the base address of where this driver is loaded in memory. This is the virtual address of where this driver is loaded in memory. We're going to go ahead and dump it. Dump the memory at that address. For all of you guys that use hex dumps all the time, this should look pretty familiar. This 4D5A, that's simply the MZ signature inside the PE header. Right now, what we're seeing is the PE header of this rootkit driver loaded in memory. At this point, I'm going to go ahead and load up the memory hook engine, ShadowWalker. It started up successfully. Now, we're going to go ahead and perform another memory dump. Now, it's gone. So, we'll take questions offline. We're leaving the room. We're being evicted. We have swag books. We'd love to hear from you. Thanks a lot."
}