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There we go.

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Welcome to Understanding Space Through a Cybersecurity Lens.

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I'm Jerry Sellers.

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And a little bit about me.

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So I did 20 years in the Air Force, mainly space stuff.

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I worked space shuttle mission control back in the day.

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I worked about 14 different shuttle flights, including on console for the Challenger accident and then worked return to flight after that.

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So if you saw the movie Apollo 13, anybody, I actually worked for Gene Kranz back in the day.

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Then a bunch of other stuff in the Air Force, all space related.

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I retired from the Air Force in 2004.

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And then our small company, TSDI, we do training and workforce development and system engineering consulting kind of all over the industry.

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So I'm also adjunct at Stevens Institute of Technology and at Georgetown, do some graduate courses with them.

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And I'm an Agile guy, so I teach Agile around the industry a bit too.

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I'm here today with two other folks helping me out.

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So I'll turn first over to Terri.

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Terri, if you want to say a few words about yourself.

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Hi there.

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I am Terri Johnson and I'm the chair of the Computer Networking and Cyber Department at Pikes Peak Community College, located here in Colorado Springs.

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I started in IT over 20 years ago, really specializing in computer networking and then securing those computer networks, starting out with Deloitte and Anderson, two of the big five or whatever they're called now, tax and audit firms.

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And then I realized that I really have this love for education and have served on as both faculty and staff in K-12 and higher ed.

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Like when I have free time, I really like to spend it on beaches.

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So you're... and I'm coming to you from Colorado and actually all of us are in Colorado, so she's at a virtual beach back there.

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And then helped today too by Jason.

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Jason, say a quick word about yourself.

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Yes, I am a high school student.

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I'm interested in computer science and cybersecurity.

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I am on the robotics team and I participate in a number of local coding competitions and I'm just going to be helping out here.

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So he's getting a little experience rubbing shoulders virtually with the folks in the cyber community.

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So this is good practice for him today.

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So our company is TSTI, so we do training consulting around the industry.

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We like to say we have a front row seat to the industry.

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We get to see what kind of challenges everybody has at NASA, ESA, DOD, industry.

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We work on a lot of... support a lot of textbook development work and we... our company does on-site training back when you can do that.

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We've kind of pivoted 100% virtual training since COVID.

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We also do coaching and integrated programs and then we do other consulting, especially in model-based system engineering.

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It's a very growing area for us.

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So I saw one question in there in the chat about reasonable rockets.

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Let's hold that question.

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That's a good one to bring up when we get to the break.

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So if you've got specific questions about the material, I'll probably handle that right then.

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If it's a good question, but I think we might deserve a deeper answer, I might wait until the break.

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So if you're okay with that, that's how we'll proceed.

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So here's our overview of what we're going to try to do this afternoon.

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I'm going to start with big picture.

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We want to know the context for space.

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And that context is also the context in which cybersecurity has to occur with respect to space.

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So we'll tackle that and we'll look at this thing we call a space mission architecture and how all the puzzle pieces that have to go together to make a space mission be successful.

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We'll then look at various opportunities.

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So opportunities for people to do necessarily possibly the various things.

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And with respect to that, we'll look at orbital mechanics and mission operations.

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We'll focus on those two, if you will, threat surfaces.

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And then we'll look at specific threats having to do with natural environment in space and the man-made environment.

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And we're going to see the natural environment is pretty darn nasty.

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So it's hard enough to work in space, let alone just throw humans on there to try and do bad things.

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But we'll try to understand both of those potential threat areas.

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And then we'll end up this afternoon looking at vulnerabilities.

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And we'll look at two key vulnerabilities, one being RF links.

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So the RF systems, radio frequency systems shown there in cartoon as uplinks, downlinks.

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These are the pipes that carry the data that we use in missions.

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And then we'll talk a bit about the space data architectures that we use in ground and onboard systems.

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So here's our objective.

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Oh, sorry.

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First of all, this course is based around this textbook.

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So there's a textbook called Understanding Space.

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And it's available through that website.

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This is part of the Space Technology Series.

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I think there's roughly up to 30 books now in that series that tackle all kinds of different space subjects.

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So if you're interested in pretty much anything to do in space, there's a textbook probably for it.

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But this is the introductory book.

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And a lot of the material here, the images came out of that book.

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So if you're interested in that, you can try to get a copy of that.

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So here's our objectives for the afternoon.

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We're going to start by trying to build some core space knowledge.

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So we're basically launching you on a trajectory here, where we're going to start by, you know, laying the foundation and launch pad with our core space knowledge, what is the space mission architecture, and that kind of thing.

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And then we'll look at how we build upon that to understand the basic capabilities and trade-offs and limitations as they apply specifically to the cybersecurity domain.

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We're going to focus on orbital mechanics and the opportunities or lack thereof that that creates for getting access to space systems, and then look at the operational architectures as well and see how that can constrain access.

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As I said, we'll focus on the natural and human-made threats that can be out there, especially the natural ones, and what kind of vulnerabilities that comes out from there, as we look at things like radio frequency links and the data architecture.

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So somebody's asked for the recording.

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I think we'll be posting that recording.

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I just sent the morning recording off to the organizers.

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So they're going to put that on Discord somewhere.

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I don't know where they put that.

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But if you... did I put my email?

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Yeah, no, I didn't.

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Yeah, I put my email address.

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So if anything comes up in this course or afterwards, please feel free to reach out to me.

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If you can't find the recording or whatever, I can get it for you.

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So please feel free to track us down if you need to.

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So here's our agenda.

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We're in afternoon session, day one over there on the left.

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So we're just getting started.

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And you see the course is broken into kind of half-hour segments.

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So we'll tackle a subject for about a half an hour.

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And then I've got some poll questions that I'll ask you, just kind of see if you've been paying attention.

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And it also gives us a chance to discuss some of the topics a little deeper.

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We'll have time for a little stretch break in there.

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And also we can tackle any sort of other questions that you might come up with that are a little off-topic, but I wanted to build in some time to talk about those somewhat off-topic questions.

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We have some great questions this morning about slingshot trajectories and other stuff.

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So again, kind of any questions, spare game out here.

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So feel free to come up with stuff.

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We've got time built in to do that.

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So we'll hit each section roughly by a half hour, take a poll, have a short break, and then we'll get right back at it.

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And then you want to save up some energy for the very end, because then we're going to have a little cybersecurity challenge for all of you.

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So I'm going to present you with a scenario and you're going to have to think through what you do to respond to that potential cybersecurity scenario.

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So get ready for that.

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That's coming here at the end of the afternoon.

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So it should be pretty action-packed, hopefully a fun afternoon for you.

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So let's start with the contents.

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So I'm a big picture guy.

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I like to think about, okay, what, you know, how does this, let me show you the, you know, I can't put together the pieces of the puzzle until you show me the picture on the front of the box.

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Okay.

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So this is the picture on the front of the box of what the puzzle is going to look like.

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And that puzzle has these various key pieces that we want to look at.

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We call that, we put that whole puzzle together, we call it the space mission architecture, which includes orbits and trajectories, spacecraft, vehicles, operations, and at the core there, we have the mission itself.

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So we want to know how all those pieces go together.

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That's what we're going to start by tackling.

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And to do that, we want to first understand, well, why, because we're going to look at the mission, why do we go to space at all?

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You know, what are the reasons that we would even bother spending all this money, time, effort, risking people's lives to go to space?

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And space, it turns out, is a pretty big industry.

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I think as of last year, the latest numbers I saw, space is a $420 billion industry.

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I mean, it rivals the airline industry in terms of size.

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So it's a pretty big industry .

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So where's all this money coming from?

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Why are people even making money in space?

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Why do we go to the time and trouble to go to space?

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So we list here what we call space impurities, the unique aspects about space that make us want to go there.

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And so we have global perspective, clear view of the heavens, free fall environment, resources, and the final frontier.

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So those, those reasons, those five reasons we might go to space, which do you think is the single most important?

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The reason that we most often go to space, and the reason most people make money in space?

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Who wants to guess which of those five are the most important?

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But you just put it in the chat, or you can shout out.

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I'd say the global perspective, you can see the whole world.

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Absolutely.

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Yeah, you nailed it.

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So I live in Colorado.

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So I like to tell people, the reason we go to space is to get high.

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That's the main reason we go to space, because it's higher.

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By being higher, we can see more stuff, right?

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The more I can see, the better I can understand what's going on.

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If we could simply build a tall tower and look down, we'd probably prefer to do that.

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But we can't build a tower quite that tall.

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Although I have some colleagues trying to build a space elevator, but that's another discussion.

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But, but by being, being high, we can see more, right?

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And the more I can see, the more I can understand what's going on.

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It turns out back in the, back in the 50s, in 1957, when the Russians launched Sputnik, they actually did us a favor.

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They, they, they established the precedent, international law, that you can overfly any country from space.

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Now, you can't overfly any country in the air, you can't just get an airplane and go fly over Canada, they wouldn't like that.

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But you can overfly Canada from space.

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There, that's international law, that's an okay thing to do.

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So that, that established space is sort of open sky in terms of the ability to go over and overfly anything that's out there.

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So that was Sputnik 1.

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And then later on, they flew a couple other missions.

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And then anybody know the first animal to fly in space?

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The Russians flew the first animal in space.

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Yeah, the dog, the dog was named Laika.

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You may remember Laika?

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So Laika, Laika was a dog that flew in space.

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And of course, we didn't know much about Laika, you know, during the Soviet times.

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But after the fall of Soviet Union, information came out about Laika.

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And it turns out, Laika was not any ordinary dog.

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They scoured the entire Soviet Union to find a special dog, because they wanted to have a talking dog, because they couldn't have an air-to-ground link.

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So they, they needed a talking dog to talk to the dog.

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So Laika was a talking dog.

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And when Laika came down to land there, she was supposed to land on the land.

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But you know, the early times, her guidance wasn't that accurate.

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So she ended up landing in the, in the, in the sea.

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It was a stormy night, and a little capsule got kind of tossed around.

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And they finally got the capsule up on the beach, and they opened up the hatch, and Laika came trotting down.

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They said, Laika, how was the trip?

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And she said, rough.

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So yeah, talking dog, Laika.

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But so actually, that's a lie.

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Laika couldn't talk.

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Actually, Laika, unfortunately, burned up on re-entry, which is why the Russians say they invented the hot dog.

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So , but there we go.

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So, but I digress.

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So we get up there to be high, we get there to see what's going on.

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And that's the most important reason.

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These other reasons are cool, too.

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But in terms of making money, being high is where it's about.

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So while we're up there, we can do some cool things.

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So being high, one of the most important things we can do is provide communication.

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So Arthur Clarke came up with this idea.

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Arthur is a science fiction writer.

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He came up with this idea in the 40s.

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Actually, somebody else came up with it, but he's popular for stating it, is that if I could put a satellite that two people could see on opposite sides of the Earth, and they can both see the satellite, then we could talk through that satellite.

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So we can relay information through that satellite.

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That special orbit we can use to do that is called geostationary orbit.

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We'll talk about that here in a little while.

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And if you look at the bottom picture there, you can see out of the, this is not quite the scale, the geostationary orbit is pretty popular.

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There's roughly 400 active satellites up there in geostationary orbit, mostly doing communication.

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And they're not really stacked up like little bb's there.

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That's just showing how many are in a given slot.

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The slots are pretty big, about a one degree slot, roughly 360 degrees, if you will, around the Earth, roughly one degree slots.

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So there can be more than one satellite in a slot.

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But it's a very popular place to be.

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If you own a slot, if you have license to use a slot, that's literally money in the bank.

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So it's like owning beachfront property because they're not making any more of it.

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So very popular place to operate from in space.

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You can kind of see where the popular places are.

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You can see there's a lot kind of over in Europe, a lot over in North America, a lot over Asia, not so much over the middle of the Pacific.

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So that's where most of the money being made in space today is, is in geostationary com.

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The other big area that's not so much a moneymaker, although people do make money on GPS, but is certainly an enabler for the global economy, is navigation, and really position navigation and timing, global geospatial navigation services.

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And of course, the most most popular there is GPS, the global positioning system operated by the Air Force, now Space Force.

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And then of course, there's GLONASS, there's the Chinese Beidou system, and there's Galileo, the new European system.

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So there's more and more systems coming available, which is good, it gives us some backup.

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Because if you think about it, the entire global economy depends on this capability for position navigation and timing.

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If you were to take out that capability, the world economy would be worse shape than it is right now.

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So really bad.

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ATMs wouldn't work, wouldn't be able to use a lot of global communication.

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And of course, you know, people would get lost.

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So all this is key.

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So it's and the ability to do GPS is provided by the fact that we can put satellites in a high orbit.

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And standing on Earth, I can see at least four satellites at any one time, four times, it turns out to be the magic number I need to solve the problem.

215
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So I can see four satellites at once, usually, I can see more than that.

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I can get that by having those satellites up there in a very high orbit.

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So any place on Earth, you can always see at least four satellites.

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So that's simply an advantage of being up there high.

219
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And I'm here on Earth, I can access those satellites quite easily.

220
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And now I have the ability to do my navigation.

221
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So that high ground, again, that global perspective is being leveraged by GPS and other navigation systems.

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And of course, the other thing we can do by being up there is we can look down, we can look down and take pictures of what's happening on Earth.

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So that's our what we broadly call remote sensing kind of missions.

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And, and of course, obvious one would be something like the nightly weather report, you just had a hurricane pass off the coast of Florida.

225
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So you probably saw some of the images from that all came from satellites.

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We have satellites in geostationary orbit and in low Earth orbit that monitor the weather.

227
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And then we have all kinds of satellites that do imaging.

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Planet Labs has a whole number of satellites they do for daily imaging of the Earth.

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And you can do low resolution, high resolution.

230
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Of course, the military does very high resolution imagery spy satellite type things.

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We have missions like that do just environmental monitoring that will look for ozone monitoring and things like that.

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Landsat is a long term mission that has been flown now for gosh, going on 40 years, that they've been monitoring the Earth's environment for that long.

233
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So nice longitudinal data in terms of behavior.

234
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And these spy satellites all go back to the early days.

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So one of the very first, well, the first military satellite we tried to build was to do was spy satellites.

236
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And that was a mission called Corona, not to be confused with the beer or the virus.

237
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But the Corona mission was stood up by the National Reconnaissance Office at the time.

238
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That was his job was to go do that.

239
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And to give you an idea of the priority, their 13th flight was successful.

240
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They had 12 consecutive failures and still got funding to keep going.

241
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And they launched these satellites up into space.

242
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This is now the early 60s.

243
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How did they get the pictures down?

244
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Anybody know how they got the pictures down?

245
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What's that?

246
00:18:35,200 --> 00:18:38,000
I know, when they dropped like film rolls?

247
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Yes, they, they ejected the film rolls from the satellite, the satellite, the film rolls entered the containers, obviously, enter the atmosphere, and then they popped a parachute, and then they would snatch them out of the air.

248
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And then they would send them to a place called photomat.

249
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And you get your pictures back in a couple of weeks, right?

250
00:18:57,900 --> 00:19:00,620
That was the Instagram of the day, right?

251
00:19:00,620 --> 00:19:02,900
That's when we use this stuff called film.

252
00:19:03,780 --> 00:19:10,860
Yeah, hard to believe that they actually literally launched rolls of film, and then parachuted the rolls of film down from outer space.

253
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It's hard to hard to imagine.

254
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But that's what they did.

255
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It wasn't until the 70s that they went to all digital.

256
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So I mean, you can pretty much, you know, thank spy satellites for the digital capability, digital camera capability, you have on your cell phone today, and the ability to develop the CCDs and that sort of technology came and was pushed by remote sensing kind of missions.

257
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So again, why there?

258
00:19:36,860 --> 00:19:37,740
Why can we do this?

259
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Because we're above the earth because we're high because we can see what's going on.

260
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So let's explore that architecture now a little bit deeper now that we understand why we're going to space.

261
00:19:48,460 --> 00:19:53,060
And the first part of our architecture is why is the mission, right?

262
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And so in 1961, President Kennedy gave a very famous speech about going to the moon.

263
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I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal before this decade is out of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth.

264
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No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind or more important for the long range exploration of space and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.

265
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So in that case, Kennedy outlined a very simple mission, right?

266
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At least simple in terms of articulating it, right?

267
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Land a man on the moon, turn him safely to the earth, end of the decade.

268
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Three goals and objectives right there.

269
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So what we want to know about any mission is, first of all, what need are we addressing?

270
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Here it was the need to, you know, beat the Russians.

271
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But then what are the goals and objectives we're trying to accomplish?

272
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And how do we plan to go about accomplishing that?

273
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We call that the concept of operations.

274
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So we want to know all those things to give us an idea of the why.

275
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Once we know the why, we can figure out the how.

276
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And the how usually starts with a spacecraft.

277
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So a spacecraft is a satellite in orbit, and we'll talk about orbits a bit later here.

278
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And that satellite's going to do a job.

279
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And that satellite, we can break into two parts.

280
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We call it the payload and the bus.

281
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So the payload is the part that's doing the mission.

282
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It's taking the pictures, it's sending the... it's relaying the HPO signal, whatever it is its mission is doing.

283
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And then the bus is there to support the payload.

284
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So just like our little cartoon in the bottom there, the button, you know, the school bus's job is to get the payload, the kids, school.

285
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So that payload... we got a live mic here...

286
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that payload then is getting transported by the bus.

287
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And so the bus has to have what?

288
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It has to have structure, it has to have, you know, propulsion, it has to have a radio, air conditioning, all the things to keep the payload happy.

289
00:22:11,180 --> 00:22:14,180
And that's what we're doing in any mission, right?

290
00:22:14,180 --> 00:22:21,360
We have the bus carrying the payload, the payload's doing the mission, the bus is carrying the payload.

291
00:22:21,740 --> 00:22:25,860
And we typically will often... sometimes we'll actually split up the operations with that.

292
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There's a DOD mission where the Army operates the payload and the Air Force, I guess now Space Force, operates the bus.

293
00:22:33,480 --> 00:22:39,820
And that's a... because it's a big mission and it's a lot to manage, so they split that between two organizations.

294
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And some science missions may have a dozen different payloads, and so you may have multiple payload operators for different parts of that.

295
00:22:48,700 --> 00:22:51,540
So that's kind of how we want to think about our mission.

296
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We have our mission at the center, have our spacecraft that's doing the job, and we have the payload that's actually doing the interaction, taking the pictures, the bus supporting the payload.

297
00:23:02,680 --> 00:23:07,680
And then we... once we're up there, the spacecraft has to operate from an orbit.

298
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And as we're going to see, we can think about an orbit like a big racetrack.

299
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And so once I get into that racetrack, I'm going to be going around, around the Earth all day long, and then I'm going to look down.

300
00:23:17,940 --> 00:23:21,140
And when I look down, I'm going to see some amount of the Earth.

301
00:23:21,140 --> 00:23:24,140
How much I see depends on how high I am, right?

302
00:23:24,140 --> 00:23:26,480
The higher I am, more of the Earth I can see.

303
00:23:26,940 --> 00:23:34,260
As I look down then, that cone that you see in that cartoon on the bottom, that cone has a field of regard.

304
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The field of regard is everything I potentially can see.

305
00:23:37,480 --> 00:23:43,020
And then the field of view is what I actually do see when I, say, point my camera.

306
00:23:43,020 --> 00:23:45,740
I've got an animation of that coming up a little bit later.

307
00:23:46,060 --> 00:23:54,120
And then that swath, you see that line across there, that tells you how much of the Earth I can see as I'm kind of going around the Earth.

308
00:23:54,120 --> 00:23:56,720
So that swath... think about mowing a lawn, right?

309
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I'm mowing a swath across the Earth, and depending on how high I am, and depending on some other factors of my mission, that'll tell you how wide a swath I can cut.

310
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And if I cut a wide swath, then maybe I don't need to orbit the Earth very many times to see everything.

311
00:24:12,000 --> 00:24:17,000
If I have a narrow swath, I may have to orbit the Earth quite a few times before I see everything.

312
00:24:17,060 --> 00:24:25,940
And so that's going to be a big trade-off for us in terms of access to information on the ground and access from the ground to the satellite, as we're going to see.

313
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We'll look at a thing called ground tracks and see why that's important.

314
00:24:29,720 --> 00:24:32,620
The other piece of the problem is getting to space.

315
00:24:32,620 --> 00:24:38,940
So here's our launch of the Atlas V launch of the NASA CIRUS-REx mission from a couple of years ago.

316
00:24:39,580 --> 00:24:51,000
She had a big old Atlas V rocket and liquid oxygen kerosene engines on the first stage there, RD-180 engines.

317
00:24:51,000 --> 00:24:55,800
And that's going to take you into orbit, into that orbit we just talked about.

318
00:24:56,060 --> 00:25:03,120
Rockets are broken into stages, and that's because of the just inherent limitations of the rocket technology we have today.

319
00:25:03,900 --> 00:25:06,180
In this case, their stage is not recoverable.

320
00:25:06,180 --> 00:25:10,420
If I'd shown you Falcon 9, it'd probably show you recovering that first stage.

321
00:25:10,660 --> 00:25:12,820
It's also LOX kerosene, it turns out.

322
00:25:12,820 --> 00:25:14,840
But that's how I'm going to get to orbit.

323
00:25:14,840 --> 00:25:20,480
And we're going to see how much energy that launch vehicle has to deliver for me to get into orbit.

324
00:25:20,480 --> 00:25:21,860
Turns out that's quite a bit.

325
00:25:22,760 --> 00:25:25,500
Once I'm up there, now I can start doing my mission.

326
00:25:25,500 --> 00:25:33,300
And the main reason I'm in space, I'm up there, I'm high, I'm looking down at the earth, I'm up there either creating data or moving data, right?

327
00:25:33,300 --> 00:25:40,140
So the whole name of the game in the space business is about ones and zeros going from one point to another, right?

328
00:25:40,140 --> 00:25:44,940
How those ones and zeros get around are on all these links that we're going to talk about.

329
00:25:44,940 --> 00:25:49,820
So that's that communication architecture we show there at the top.

330
00:25:49,820 --> 00:25:55,340
So all of mission operations is about people, processes, and things for doing the job.

331
00:25:55,340 --> 00:26:03,440
We've got a lot of things, a lot of infrastructure, manufacturing, launch capabilities, communication networks.

332
00:26:03,440 --> 00:26:08,320
And then I have all the people, the mission management and operations that are actually running the mission.

333
00:26:08,320 --> 00:26:11,580
So I have a classic picture down there at the bottom.

334
00:26:11,580 --> 00:26:17,800
That's the Apollo 13 mission after they successfully got the astronauts back from their harrowing experience.

335
00:26:17,800 --> 00:26:20,900
You see dozens of people there just in the front room.

336
00:26:20,900 --> 00:26:29,300
But a large mission like human spaceflight, International Space Station, literally has thousands of people around the world supporting that.

337
00:26:29,300 --> 00:26:34,420
Now, if I have a little CubeSat mission, maybe only have a dozen or so people supporting that.

338
00:26:34,420 --> 00:26:36,120
But still, you've got people, right?

339
00:26:36,120 --> 00:26:40,160
People, processes, and things that we need to run the mission.

340
00:26:41,140 --> 00:26:45,200
Then finally, we have system engineering and project management to pull it all together.

341
00:26:45,200 --> 00:26:49,020
So system engineering is our process of turning a need into a capability.

342
00:26:49,140 --> 00:26:55,480
System engineering is about balancing cost schedule performance along with risk to deliver our mission successfully.

343
00:26:55,480 --> 00:27:07,740
And then we have our project management to lead the team and ultimately try to deliver the program on cost, on schedule, on budget with acceptable risk.

344
00:27:07,940 --> 00:27:30,520
And then supporting all that, and especially as we kind of emerge into this area of cyberspace and cybersecurity for space, is we have an organization that we can call out here called Information Sharing and Analysis Center, the ISAC, started just a year or so ago to look at trying to pull together some of these threats and opportunities in cyberspace.

345
00:27:30,520 --> 00:27:47,340
So they work with industry and they work with government, focusing on three key areas of supply chain, safety, business systems, and overall missions to try to make sure that we're staying, keep the community aware of what the cybersecurity issues could be.

346
00:27:47,580 --> 00:27:49,900
So there's our big picture context.

347
00:27:49,900 --> 00:27:59,080
I wanted to understand why we go to space for that global perspective, what kinds of missions we do up there, especially communication, remote sensing, and navigation.

348
00:27:59,360 --> 00:28:11,420
I want you to understand what we mean by that space mission architecture that includes the mission itself, the spacecraft, the orbit, the launch vehicle, mission operation systems as well.

349
00:28:11,520 --> 00:28:20,600
So from a cybersecurity standpoint, what we'd like you to take away here is an understanding and appreciation for how important space is to the global economy.

350
00:28:20,600 --> 00:28:29,300
Not only is it a big industry just by itself, and nearly half a billion, half a trillion dollars, but it's integral to pretty much everything.

351
00:28:29,300 --> 00:28:44,160
So from cell phones, to power grids, to GPS, to commercial transportation, and simply knowing where you are in commercial and financial markets, we depend, we the world, depend on space.

352
00:28:44,160 --> 00:28:51,840
And of course, the more you depend on something, the more vulnerable it can potentially be, and that's the vulnerability we want you to be aware of.

353
00:28:51,840 --> 00:28:57,180
And because of that, space is becoming a larger attack vector that we have to focus on.

354
00:28:57,180 --> 00:29:03,300
And then finally, just be aware of the space ISAC and what that collaborative groups like that can help do for us.

355
00:29:04,160 --> 00:29:04,820
All right.

356
00:29:05,160 --> 00:29:08,820
There was a good question about reusable rockets I want to get to in here in a second.

357
00:29:09,260 --> 00:29:14,620
But any specific questions about what we just covered in terms of big picture?

358
00:29:17,940 --> 00:29:19,800
See, we ended up with a pretty healthy crowd.

359
00:29:19,800 --> 00:29:20,760
So that's great.

360
00:29:21,620 --> 00:29:24,100
Any questions that came out from what we covered?

361
00:29:28,760 --> 00:29:31,300
Yeah, I think I have a question.

362
00:29:31,300 --> 00:29:34,360
So I am French, so I have a French accent.

363
00:29:34,360 --> 00:29:37,360
So I hope you will, you will be able to understand me.

364
00:29:38,040 --> 00:29:40,460
I have to go on another.

365
00:29:40,460 --> 00:29:42,420
So it was really interesting.

366
00:29:42,540 --> 00:29:43,760
And thank you so much.

367
00:29:43,760 --> 00:29:47,120
And I have to go on another talk.

368
00:29:47,200 --> 00:29:49,580
But can I have your email address?

369
00:29:49,580 --> 00:29:53,260
Because I would like to ask you some questions, but I need to leave now.

370
00:29:53,580 --> 00:29:56,880
So is it possible that you write it in the chat, maybe?

371
00:29:58,000 --> 00:30:00,520
Yeah, it was in the slides that I just put there too.

372
00:30:00,520 --> 00:30:01,480
I didn't.

373
00:30:01,480 --> 00:30:03,360
Okay, well, that's really nice.

374
00:30:03,360 --> 00:30:04,080
Thank you so much.

375
00:30:04,080 --> 00:30:08,080
And I will need to leave Zoom really soon.

376
00:30:08,080 --> 00:30:10,540
Well, we'll be doing it again tomorrow and Sunday morning.

377
00:30:10,540 --> 00:30:11,940
So if you want to drop back.

378
00:30:12,280 --> 00:30:13,740
At what time?

379
00:30:14,260 --> 00:30:15,220
Tomorrow.

380
00:30:15,420 --> 00:30:19,340
Tomorrow's at nine and at 1.30.

381
00:30:20,480 --> 00:30:21,200
Okay.

382
00:30:21,200 --> 00:30:23,300
And then another one on Sunday at 9am.

383
00:30:23,380 --> 00:30:24,100
Yep.

384
00:30:24,100 --> 00:30:25,280
Okay.

385
00:30:27,720 --> 00:30:35,740
Is it written on the DEFCON schedule website with Aerospace Village?

386
00:30:35,740 --> 00:30:36,220
I'm not sure.

387
00:30:36,220 --> 00:30:36,940
I didn't see it.

388
00:30:36,940 --> 00:30:37,540
It should be.

389
00:30:37,540 --> 00:30:39,440
Matt should be able to answer that.

390
00:30:39,440 --> 00:30:45,420
And if you check in the Discord, there's an Understanding Space Discord channel.

391
00:30:45,960 --> 00:30:47,120
Okay.

392
00:30:48,520 --> 00:30:49,540
That's great.

393
00:30:49,540 --> 00:30:50,700
Thank you.

394
00:30:50,980 --> 00:30:51,820
You bet.

395
00:30:51,820 --> 00:30:54,080
Any other specific questions from what we covered?

396
00:30:56,620 --> 00:30:57,140
All right.

397
00:30:57,140 --> 00:30:58,600
I'm going to give you the poll.

398
00:31:01,190 --> 00:31:04,410
So let's launch the poll there.

399
00:31:04,930 --> 00:31:07,310
So take a couple of minutes to answer the poll.

400
00:31:07,550 --> 00:31:11,330
And we will start back up in about 10 minutes.

401
00:31:11,330 --> 00:31:13,210
So this gives you a chance to answer the poll.

402
00:31:13,210 --> 00:31:14,970
And then we'll cover the poll.

403
00:31:14,970 --> 00:31:16,710
And then we'll pick right back up there.

404
00:31:16,710 --> 00:31:19,030
And we're going to hit Opportunities.

405
00:31:19,030 --> 00:31:20,290
So buckle up.

406
00:31:20,290 --> 00:31:23,590
We're going to talk about Orbital Mechanics when we get back.

407
00:31:23,590 --> 00:31:24,930
So go ahead and take the poll.

408
00:31:24,930 --> 00:31:27,190
Take a stretch break if you need it.

409
00:31:27,190 --> 00:31:30,130
And then we'll dive into Orbital Mechanics in a minute.

410
00:32:34,880 --> 00:32:36,820
And do your best with the poll questions.

411
00:32:36,820 --> 00:32:44,280
And then if there's any other questions you have from what we've covered so far, or if there's something you want to make sure I do cover, please put that in the chat.

412
00:33:54,430 --> 00:33:54,870
All right.

413
00:33:54,870 --> 00:33:58,770
I'm getting pretty good participation in the chat there or in the poll.

414
00:34:00,910 --> 00:34:02,530
Give everybody another minute or two.

415
00:34:02,530 --> 00:34:06,270
And then we'll go through the poll and see if we have any other questions.

416
00:34:06,270 --> 00:34:08,790
And then we'll pick up from there.

417
00:34:44,320 --> 00:34:44,900
All right.

418
00:34:44,900 --> 00:34:48,620
Let's see how we did in the poll here and share the results.

419
00:34:50,820 --> 00:34:52,140
So... all right.

420
00:34:52,140 --> 00:34:56,940
So single most important reason we go to space is to get high, right?

421
00:34:56,940 --> 00:34:59,800
Ultimate high ground, to get that global perspective.

422
00:34:59,840 --> 00:35:02,020
It's more than just getting above the atmosphere.

423
00:35:02,020 --> 00:35:05,400
In fact, we'll see we don't always even get above the atmosphere completely.

424
00:35:05,620 --> 00:35:09,720
It's about getting up there so we can see more stuff.

425
00:35:09,720 --> 00:35:11,680
That's the single most important reason.

426
00:35:11,680 --> 00:35:13,740
And it's not to experience zero G.

427
00:35:13,740 --> 00:35:16,040
So we'll talk about that word.

428
00:35:16,080 --> 00:35:17,820
We don't like to use that word.

429
00:35:18,660 --> 00:35:26,920
So the part of the spacecraft that does the business, basically does the mission, we call that the payload, the thing that takes the pictures or collects science or whatever.

430
00:35:27,720 --> 00:35:37,320
And then mission operations systems is all the ground and space-based infrastructure we need to coordinate.

431
00:35:37,320 --> 00:35:40,220
We call that the glue that holds the mission together.

432
00:35:40,220 --> 00:35:43,900
So that's broadly, we call that mission operations systems.

433
00:35:44,420 --> 00:35:46,980
Space capabilities, yep, definitely true.

434
00:35:46,980 --> 00:35:49,060
It becomes so integral to everything we do.

435
00:35:49,060 --> 00:35:51,860
It's hard to imagine life without space.

436
00:35:52,200 --> 00:35:55,180
We've become, if anything, too dependent on it.

437
00:35:55,320 --> 00:36:02,780
And then ISAC focuses on those key areas there, supply chain, business systems, and missions.

438
00:36:02,820 --> 00:36:04,220
So good stuff.

439
00:36:06,140 --> 00:36:10,400
Any questions before we dive a bit into orbital mechanics?

440
00:36:12,160 --> 00:36:13,100
Right.

441
00:36:13,100 --> 00:36:20,060
So when we're done here, the goal is to make you all a genuine bonafide certified orbital mechanics.

442
00:36:20,300 --> 00:36:26,060
So, and I can tell you where to buy the toolkit, but you'll be an orbital mechanic.

443
00:36:26,060 --> 00:36:28,780
You'll be certified to fix people's orbits.

444
00:36:28,780 --> 00:36:30,040
You'll be all ready to go.

445
00:36:30,040 --> 00:36:33,500
So that's what we're doing in this section is really focused on opportunities.

446
00:36:33,500 --> 00:36:39,600
So where are the opportunities to actually do things to space systems?

447
00:36:39,640 --> 00:36:43,960
And some of those are quite limited as we'll see, based on things like orbital mechanics.

448
00:36:43,960 --> 00:36:50,900
Some of them are quite open because we have a pretty wide attack space potentially in the area of mission operations.

449
00:36:50,900 --> 00:36:57,800
So we're going to look at orbits and operations as two opportunity areas that we have to focus on.

450
00:36:58,460 --> 00:37:06,500
So, as I said a little bit ago, that when we look at orbits, the first order you can imagine an orbit is like a big racetrack.

451
00:37:06,500 --> 00:37:09,840
So think of this racetrack going around the earth, round and round all day.

452
00:37:09,840 --> 00:37:15,300
I've got the Hubble Space Telescope in that racetrack, and it's just going around and around all day long.

453
00:37:15,340 --> 00:37:19,460
In the U.S., we have a kind of a popular sport called NASCAR.

454
00:37:19,900 --> 00:37:25,420
And the joke is, you know, how do you escape if a NASCAR person is chasing you?

455
00:37:25,420 --> 00:37:27,720
And the answer is turn right.

456
00:37:27,880 --> 00:37:33,440
Because in NASCAR, they just turn left all day long, going around, around, around, around the track.

457
00:37:33,520 --> 00:37:35,600
And that's pretty much what a satellite does.

458
00:37:35,600 --> 00:37:39,080
It just goes around, around, around, around the track all day long.

459
00:37:39,080 --> 00:37:43,480
In low earth orbit, that takes it about 90 minutes to go once around the earth.

460
00:37:43,480 --> 00:37:45,440
So it's roughly 15 times a day.

461
00:37:45,540 --> 00:37:47,380
It's going to go around, around the earth.

462
00:37:47,520 --> 00:37:48,640
And that's what it does.

463
00:37:48,640 --> 00:37:49,880
And that's what we want it to do.

464
00:37:49,880 --> 00:37:51,120
We want it to be predictable.

465
00:37:51,120 --> 00:37:53,840
We want it to be in the same orbit all the time.

466
00:37:54,100 --> 00:37:58,240
And those are things that they're going to help us understand how to do our mission operations.

467
00:37:58,400 --> 00:38:00,660
So we're trying to get into that racetrack.

468
00:38:00,660 --> 00:38:02,500
Well, how do we get into that racetrack?

469
00:38:02,500 --> 00:38:06,580
Well, to get into that racetrack, we have to remember there's this thing called gravity.

470
00:38:06,800 --> 00:38:11,060
And so if you drop something, it goes down and you forget how gravity works.

471
00:38:11,120 --> 00:38:12,560
Just remember the earth sucks.

472
00:38:12,560 --> 00:38:13,940
It just pulls it down.

473
00:38:14,140 --> 00:38:17,100
So if I drop a baseball, it's going to fall.

474
00:38:17,380 --> 00:38:21,620
So in my cartoon in the upper right, I now have two baseball players.

475
00:38:21,980 --> 00:38:28,120
I have one who's going to drop a ball and I have one who's going to throw a ball from the same height at the same time.

476
00:38:29,020 --> 00:38:33,340
So if I drop a ball and I throw a ball, which one should hit first?

477
00:38:33,480 --> 00:38:36,160
Well, way back in the day, there was a guy named Aristotle.

478
00:38:36,240 --> 00:38:40,300
He thought that if you had a heavy ball and a light ball, that the heavy ball would fall faster.

479
00:38:40,300 --> 00:38:44,220
And it wasn't until Galileo came along and said, hey, let's try it.

480
00:38:44,220 --> 00:38:48,900
And he figured out, well, wait a minute, heavy ball, light ball, everything falls at the same rate.

481
00:38:48,920 --> 00:38:52,340
So it turns out gravity doesn't care about the motion of the ball.

482
00:38:52,340 --> 00:38:54,760
You can throw it, you can spin it, you can do whatever you want to it.

483
00:38:54,820 --> 00:39:01,600
It's still going to fall at the same rate, which at the surface of the earth is about 9.8 meters per second squared.

484
00:39:01,840 --> 00:39:08,600
So if you don't believe me, I've got a little video here that shows this simultaneous dropping and throwing.

485
00:39:08,600 --> 00:39:13,580
So I'm going to drop a ball here and throw a ball at the same time.

486
00:39:16,800 --> 00:39:23,120
And you can see there in slow motion, they're hitting at the same time.

487
00:39:26,530 --> 00:39:33,070
If anybody likes the Mythbusters, remember the Mythbusters, they did one where they shot a bullet and they dropped a bullet.

488
00:39:33,070 --> 00:39:36,450
So the bullet went like 300 feet and then hit the ground.

489
00:39:36,530 --> 00:39:44,110
And they showed the same thing, whether you drop it or even with a bullet, right, it's still going to fall at the same rate as when you drop.

490
00:39:44,190 --> 00:39:45,830
Okay, so what does that mean?

491
00:39:45,830 --> 00:39:49,830
Okay, so now we get a little thought experiment here to understand orbits.

492
00:39:49,850 --> 00:39:51,650
So picture the earth, right?

493
00:39:51,650 --> 00:39:53,550
Imagine the earth is a perfect sphere.

494
00:39:54,390 --> 00:40:03,190
If the earth were a perfect sphere, then for every eight kilometers you go horizontally, the earth curves away five meters.

495
00:40:03,190 --> 00:40:05,370
So we're going to do a little thought experiment here.

496
00:40:05,370 --> 00:40:09,250
We're going to build a tower on the earth that's five meters tall.

497
00:40:09,250 --> 00:40:14,590
And on that tower, we're going to put a diving board that's eight kilometers long.

498
00:40:14,590 --> 00:40:26,550
So if I walk all the way up to the edge of that eight kilometers and look down, the earth is going to be 10 meters below me because I started out five, I went out eight kilometers, the earth curved away five meters.

499
00:40:26,550 --> 00:40:32,530
The surface here could be 10 meters below the edge of the diving board.

500
00:40:32,530 --> 00:40:35,310
Okay, well now, imagine I was going to throw a baseball.

501
00:40:35,870 --> 00:40:36,970
So I'm going to go back to my tower.

502
00:40:36,970 --> 00:40:38,170
I'm going to throw a baseball.

503
00:40:38,170 --> 00:40:40,130
I'm going to throw it really fast.

504
00:40:40,130 --> 00:40:43,330
I'm going to throw it eight kilometers per second.

505
00:40:43,470 --> 00:40:47,230
So that means it's going to reach the edge of the diving board in a second.

506
00:40:47,370 --> 00:40:49,570
Well, how far will it fall in a second?

507
00:40:49,570 --> 00:40:53,810
Well, it turns out the distance you fall is one half AT squared.

508
00:40:53,990 --> 00:40:56,110
So A is 9.81.

509
00:40:56,110 --> 00:40:57,930
So we'll just call that 10.

510
00:40:57,930 --> 00:40:59,310
And half of 10 is 5.

511
00:40:59,310 --> 00:41:03,230
So basically in one second, you're going to fall five meters.

512
00:41:03,230 --> 00:41:05,610
So you started out five meters above the surface.

513
00:41:05,610 --> 00:41:08,050
You went out eight kilometers in a second.

514
00:41:08,050 --> 00:41:13,310
You fell five meters and you are still five meters above the surface.

515
00:41:13,830 --> 00:41:16,670
Well, what's going to happen the next second?

516
00:41:16,790 --> 00:41:19,230
Well, you're going to go another eight kilometers.

517
00:41:19,590 --> 00:41:22,010
You're going to fall another five meters.

518
00:41:22,010 --> 00:41:24,830
The earth is going to curve away another five meters.

519
00:41:24,830 --> 00:41:27,590
You're still going to be five meters above the surface.

520
00:41:27,590 --> 00:41:29,650
You are in a circular orbit.

521
00:41:30,190 --> 00:41:32,570
What did it take to get into a circular orbit?

522
00:41:32,570 --> 00:41:35,410
You had to go eight kilometers per second horizontal.

523
00:41:36,010 --> 00:41:40,150
Is this a condition of free of zero gravity?

524
00:41:40,370 --> 00:41:42,310
No, you're falling.

525
00:41:42,310 --> 00:41:44,470
The earth is pulling you down.

526
00:41:44,470 --> 00:41:51,090
You are just going so fast forward that the earth is curving away as fast as you go forward.

527
00:41:51,090 --> 00:41:53,410
So you keep missing the earth, right?

528
00:41:53,410 --> 00:41:57,450
You're falling, but you keep missing the earth because the earth keeps curving away from you.

529
00:41:57,450 --> 00:41:59,610
That's what allows you to be in a circular orbit.

530
00:41:59,610 --> 00:42:02,970
It's about that horizontal velocity.

531
00:42:02,970 --> 00:42:08,030
So sometimes people talk about centrifugal force stuff.

532
00:42:08,030 --> 00:42:13,130
If anybody tells you about centrifugal force with respect to orbits, just that's not right.

533
00:42:13,130 --> 00:42:15,950
There's no such thing as a centrifugal force, it turns out.

534
00:42:15,990 --> 00:42:17,810
It's all about the speed.

535
00:42:17,810 --> 00:42:21,930
It's about going fast and so fast you keep missing the earth.

536
00:42:21,930 --> 00:42:23,570
If you don't believe me, check Newton.

537
00:42:23,570 --> 00:42:28,410
If you go into Newton's, you can see Newton's sketch pad back when he was in his 20s.

538
00:42:28,410 --> 00:42:33,170
He drew little cannonballs being launched from cannons and showed how you would get into orbit, right?

539
00:42:33,170 --> 00:42:37,310
And there was no centrifugal force concept going on there.

540
00:42:37,310 --> 00:42:40,550
It's just about the velocity and this concept of gravity.

541
00:42:41,730 --> 00:42:46,790
So depending then on how hard I throw the ball, I'm going to get into a different orbit.

542
00:42:46,790 --> 00:42:53,370
So at any given altitude, there's only one specific velocity that'll give me exactly a circular orbit.

543
00:42:53,370 --> 00:42:59,010
If I throw it a little faster than that circular orbital velocity, then I'll be in an elliptical orbit.

544
00:42:59,010 --> 00:43:05,930
If I throw it slower, then I'll become an intercontinental ballistic baseball and I'll take out Rio down there.

545
00:43:06,750 --> 00:43:11,550
The shape of this trajectory is actually also an ellipse.

546
00:43:11,550 --> 00:43:17,810
Now they might've told you in high school physics when you throw basketballs or baseballs or something that those are parabolic.

547
00:43:17,810 --> 00:43:19,810
They're not, it's an ellipse.

548
00:43:20,650 --> 00:43:23,470
So this is an ellipse that happens to intersect the earth.

549
00:43:23,470 --> 00:43:32,670
If I do in fact throw the ball really, really fast, then I can enter my own independent orbit around the sun that's different.

550
00:43:32,670 --> 00:43:39,710
I'm no longer tied to the earth and I'm in my own independent orbit around the sun, different than the earth, but I don't really go anywhere.

551
00:43:42,150 --> 00:43:44,370
And I used to say, we don't do that.

552
00:43:44,370 --> 00:43:46,090
And then we started doing that.

553
00:43:46,250 --> 00:43:50,070
And as we call that earth trailing orbits now.

554
00:43:51,110 --> 00:43:52,550
Solar observation.

555
00:43:53,770 --> 00:43:57,950
If I want to go somewhere, I got to throw the ball even faster.

556
00:43:58,110 --> 00:44:05,770
So it goes out to the edge of the earth's gravitational sphere of influence and actually has excess velocity to go somewhere.

557
00:44:05,770 --> 00:44:08,670
We call that hyperbolic excess velocity.

558
00:44:08,690 --> 00:44:20,050
So when NASA launched the Perseverance rover to Mars last week, it not only had to escape the earth, they had to escape the earth with extra velocity that would allow it to go all the way to Mars.

559
00:44:20,050 --> 00:44:23,470
So it left earth on a hyperbolic trajectory.

560
00:44:23,470 --> 00:44:27,810
It then entered an elliptical trajectory around the sun.

561
00:44:27,810 --> 00:44:31,810
And then it's going to encounter Mars again on a hyperbolic trajectory.

562
00:44:31,810 --> 00:44:34,170
And they'll have to fire rockets to inter-orbit.

563
00:44:34,270 --> 00:44:37,170
Well, actually, with rover, they're going to directly enter.

564
00:44:37,170 --> 00:44:38,470
They got a big heat shield.

565
00:44:38,470 --> 00:44:40,650
So they're going to just slam right in the atmosphere.

566
00:44:40,730 --> 00:44:42,430
That's how they'll bleed off all that energy.

567
00:44:42,430 --> 00:44:47,710
And then they'll land on Mars using their complicated sky crane thing they have worked out.

568
00:44:47,710 --> 00:44:50,470
So no matter what I do, there's only four options.

569
00:44:50,470 --> 00:44:52,550
Circle, ellipse, hyperbola, parabola.

570
00:44:52,610 --> 00:44:58,030
And in reality, you can never get a perfect circle and you can never get a perfect parabola.

571
00:44:58,030 --> 00:45:03,630
So the only things we'll see is in reality are ellipses and hyperbolas.

572
00:45:03,630 --> 00:45:07,750
And for our business of orbiting around the earth, everything is an ellipse.

573
00:45:07,750 --> 00:45:16,390
Now, a lot of orbits are close enough that we call them circular, but realize to go out enough decimal places, they're not exactly circular.

574
00:45:16,390 --> 00:45:18,490
So those are our orbit options.

575
00:45:18,530 --> 00:45:20,130
Any questions on that so far?

576
00:45:20,130 --> 00:45:21,610
What it takes to get into orbit?

577
00:45:25,550 --> 00:45:32,730
Are there like orders of magnitude in terms of how much power you need to get out there?

578
00:45:32,730 --> 00:45:36,490
Does it like increase significantly or is it all fairly linear?

579
00:45:37,150 --> 00:45:38,670
That's a really interesting question.

580
00:45:38,670 --> 00:45:43,630
So let me let me tackle that here in a second, because that's an interesting way to think about it.

581
00:45:44,550 --> 00:45:48,670
So when I'm getting up into orbit, so first of all, I got to launch the ball, right?

582
00:45:48,670 --> 00:45:50,650
So I got to get that ball going fast.

583
00:45:50,650 --> 00:45:54,770
So if I don't get it going quite fast enough, it's going to smash into the earth.

584
00:45:54,770 --> 00:45:58,130
If I have it going just fast enough, it enters a circular orbit.

585
00:45:58,130 --> 00:46:01,970
If I go a little faster, it's going to enter an elliptical orbit.

586
00:46:02,410 --> 00:46:10,190
So as I said, right around the earth, you know, low earth orbit, a couple hundred kilometers up, we're looking at going about eight kilometers per second.

587
00:46:10,410 --> 00:46:19,110
But when I talked about that racetrack, the bigger the racetrack, the more energy, and we're talking about mechanical energy here.

588
00:46:19,110 --> 00:46:21,410
The bigger the racetrack, the more energy.

589
00:46:21,430 --> 00:46:26,170
So if I want to go higher, I'm gonna have to throw the baseball harder, right?

590
00:46:26,390 --> 00:46:29,830
So in low earth orbit, I'm going about eight kilometers per second.

591
00:46:29,830 --> 00:46:39,050
But as I go out to higher orbit, let's say all the way to geostationary orbit, which is 36,000 kilometers away, I'm now only going about three kilometers per second.

592
00:46:39,250 --> 00:46:40,690
Okay, well, where'd the energy go?

593
00:46:40,690 --> 00:46:43,010
Well, this is, it's all potential now, right?

594
00:46:43,010 --> 00:46:50,330
I don't have the same kinetic energy, I have more potential energy, because it costs me energy to get out there.

595
00:46:50,330 --> 00:46:53,110
I have to spend energy to get higher, right?

596
00:46:53,110 --> 00:46:55,670
And I climb out of that gravity well.

597
00:46:56,510 --> 00:47:11,210
But so that my, so I need to get out to geostationary orbit from low earth orbit, costs you about four kilometers per second, extra delta V, to go from low earth orbit all the way to geostationary.

598
00:47:11,210 --> 00:47:15,530
Turns out that's about the same amount as it takes to go to the moon.

599
00:47:16,150 --> 00:47:20,230
To go from low earth orbit to the moon is pi kilometers per second.

600
00:47:20,230 --> 00:47:23,230
So it's 3.14 kilometers per second, give or take.

601
00:47:23,610 --> 00:47:26,790
And then to get into lunar orbit is about another 800 meters per second.

602
00:47:26,790 --> 00:47:32,290
So it's about four kilometers per second to go from low earth orbit to the moon, about the same as geo.

603
00:47:32,290 --> 00:47:35,250
And going to Mars is only about five and a half.

604
00:47:35,310 --> 00:47:37,570
So it's not exponential.

605
00:47:37,690 --> 00:47:39,630
And it's not really linear either.

606
00:47:39,630 --> 00:47:47,730
But one of my favorite science fiction writers, Robert Heinlein once said, low earth orbit is halfway to everywhere.

607
00:47:48,210 --> 00:47:52,030
If you, it costs you about eight kilometers per second to get into low earth orbit.

608
00:47:52,030 --> 00:47:58,790
If you have another eight kilometers per second available, you can go anywhere in the solar system eventually, right?

609
00:47:58,790 --> 00:48:03,030
It might take you nine years to get to Pluto, but you'll get there, right?

610
00:48:03,030 --> 00:48:06,110
And so it's all about the gravity, you know.

611
00:48:06,110 --> 00:48:15,890
So, you know, if you live, you know, there's certain parts of the country and parts of the world, when you ask people how far something is, they tell you in time, not in distance, right?

612
00:48:15,890 --> 00:48:17,550
So it's all about how you think about it.

613
00:48:17,550 --> 00:48:20,470
So in space, the distance is not so important.

614
00:48:20,470 --> 00:48:22,030
It's about the energy, right?

615
00:48:22,030 --> 00:48:26,630
And we'll use that delta V as our kind of coin of the realm there.

616
00:48:26,790 --> 00:48:29,990
So that delta V then is, you know, depends on the orbit.

617
00:48:29,990 --> 00:48:33,170
And so the low earth orbit is about eight kilometers per second.

618
00:48:33,170 --> 00:48:37,010
As I said, if you go higher, this number goes down.

619
00:48:37,010 --> 00:48:39,030
About three kilometers per second.

620
00:48:40,130 --> 00:48:42,590
So it's all about trading the energy, though.

621
00:48:42,590 --> 00:48:46,130
This is the conservation of mechanical energy.

622
00:48:46,130 --> 00:48:48,950
So just like being on a swing, right?

623
00:48:48,950 --> 00:48:51,090
So when you're going low, you're fast.

624
00:48:51,090 --> 00:48:52,750
And when you're going high, you're slow.

625
00:48:52,830 --> 00:48:58,790
So I'm trading kinetic energy for potential energy here, right?

626
00:48:58,790 --> 00:49:03,110
So at the high point of the orbit, which we call apogee, I'm going slowest.

627
00:49:03,110 --> 00:49:06,450
At the low point, we call perigee, I'm going fastest.

628
00:49:06,450 --> 00:49:09,070
But my total energy is the same.

629
00:49:09,390 --> 00:49:10,710
Energy is conserved.

630
00:49:10,710 --> 00:49:15,790
Energy is a conservative field, which means whatever energy you start with, you end up with.

631
00:49:15,790 --> 00:49:23,810
Which is nice, because that means if I tell you the energy of the orbit, of the satellite at any one spot, I know it at every spot.

632
00:49:23,810 --> 00:49:28,370
So I don't have to continuously track stuff in orbit.

633
00:49:28,370 --> 00:49:31,890
I really probably couldn't do that, even though I wanted to in a lot of cases.

634
00:49:31,890 --> 00:49:35,910
Which is good news, because that means I only have to track it for a little bit.

635
00:49:35,910 --> 00:49:40,070
And if I know that energy, it's going to be the same all the time.

636
00:49:40,070 --> 00:49:42,250
So that's a big advantage for that.

637
00:49:42,710 --> 00:49:46,690
The other thing that's conserved in my orbit is angular momentum.

638
00:49:46,690 --> 00:49:48,770
So angular momentum is a vector quantity.

639
00:49:48,770 --> 00:49:56,210
So if you wrap your right hand around the direction of the orbit, it'll tell you the angular momentum vector.

640
00:49:56,410 --> 00:49:58,850
So you can see that in this animation.

641
00:49:59,730 --> 00:50:03,730
What that means is that orbit plane is fixed in space.

642
00:50:03,730 --> 00:50:09,830
The Earth is rotating underneath me, but that plane is fixed with respect to the stars.

643
00:50:09,930 --> 00:50:16,310
So you see that angular momentum vector, that big arrow pointing out there, that's orthogonal to that orbit plane.

644
00:50:16,790 --> 00:50:21,750
But the plane itself is fixed in space, and the Earth is rotating underneath me.

645
00:50:21,750 --> 00:50:23,890
That's a key thing to try to visualize.

646
00:50:24,650 --> 00:50:31,310
It's hard to imagine something being fixed in space, but that is because of angular conservation of angular momentum.

647
00:50:31,310 --> 00:50:35,870
And that's important in terms of what I can see when I'm going around.

648
00:50:35,870 --> 00:50:38,070
So as I'm going around, this is animation.

649
00:50:38,070 --> 00:50:40,450
This is not an artist's conception.

650
00:50:40,450 --> 00:50:48,550
This is using a simulation tool called System Toolkit by a company called Analytical Graphics.

651
00:50:48,550 --> 00:50:51,390
We're an educational partner, so that's my advertising for those guys.

652
00:50:51,390 --> 00:50:53,150
But they make a neat tool.

653
00:50:53,150 --> 00:50:58,050
And that tool helps us understand the behavior here.

654
00:50:58,050 --> 00:51:03,270
The circles you see represent different things that I can look at.

655
00:51:03,270 --> 00:51:09,670
So that big circle, that outer circle, represents everything I can see out to the true horizon.

656
00:51:10,030 --> 00:51:12,850
And this satellite is in a 700-kilometer orbit.

657
00:51:12,850 --> 00:51:19,530
The littler circle represents a field of regard for what we call an elevation angle of about 60 degrees.

658
00:51:19,530 --> 00:51:24,290
That big circle is an elevation angle of zero degrees, basically looking along the horizon.

659
00:51:24,290 --> 00:51:27,250
As I go up to about 60 degrees, I get this circle.

660
00:51:27,250 --> 00:51:32,270
And then when I look down with my camera, you see that little itty-bitty soda straw.

661
00:51:32,670 --> 00:51:37,170
That's what I can actually image with my high-resolution camera.

662
00:51:37,170 --> 00:51:42,330
Typically, these high-resolution imagers only have about a degree or so field of view.

663
00:51:42,350 --> 00:51:46,610
That means it's going to take me a long time to image the whole Earth.

664
00:51:46,710 --> 00:51:53,450
So that swath then is telling me how much of the Earth I'm covering on a given pass.

665
00:51:53,450 --> 00:51:58,430
And it's also going to tell me when I can see the satellite, when the satellite can see me.

666
00:51:58,430 --> 00:52:02,410
These are the opportunities I have to interact with that satellite.

667
00:52:02,790 --> 00:52:06,910
So as that satellite's going over, imagine that we're tracing a line on the Earth, right?

668
00:52:06,910 --> 00:52:09,410
So we're going to call this the ground track.

669
00:52:09,410 --> 00:52:15,570
So as I'm going around the Earth, the yellow there is the equatorial plane, just for reference.

670
00:52:15,870 --> 00:52:31,050
So as I'm going around the Earth, notice that the satellite stays in its plane, and the Earth is rotating underneath that plane, which means I'm basically doing like a spiral cut, if you will, of the Earth as I'm going around.

671
00:52:31,530 --> 00:52:42,550
And so if I'm on the ground and I want to see that satellite, I have to wait for it to pass over me, or think about another way, me to rotate underneath its orbit plane, right?

672
00:52:42,550 --> 00:52:44,190
Depends on how you want to think about it.

673
00:52:44,190 --> 00:52:45,910
And that creates our ground track.

674
00:52:45,910 --> 00:52:51,250
So we have a static map, because it's hard to move a map, so we just have a map.

675
00:52:51,250 --> 00:52:53,610
And we have our guy standing down there in South America.

676
00:52:53,610 --> 00:53:03,110
So when the satellite crosses the equator on its first orbit, let's say, the person could look over and see the satellite to his east.

677
00:53:03,290 --> 00:53:07,190
Now imagine it's a low Earth orbit satellite, has a period of about 90 minutes.

678
00:53:07,190 --> 00:53:12,070
Now the Earth is going to rotate 22.5 degrees in 90 minutes, 15 degrees an hour.

679
00:53:12,070 --> 00:53:20,090
That means the next time the satellite passes the equator, from the person's standpoint, the satellite will now be to his west, okay?

680
00:53:20,090 --> 00:53:22,390
So the satellite stayed in the same plane.

681
00:53:22,390 --> 00:53:25,590
The Earth rotated underneath the orbit plane, right?

682
00:53:25,590 --> 00:53:32,450
So and probably the next orbit on the third orbit, it'll be beyond the horizon, and you won't even be able to see it, right?

683
00:53:32,450 --> 00:53:44,370
So this is telling us when I can access that satellite to, you know, have it take pictures of me, have me talk to it, or if I was trying to do something to it, when I could even have that opportunity.

684
00:53:45,150 --> 00:53:49,090
So then different orbits will have different ground tracks.

685
00:53:49,090 --> 00:53:51,870
There's things that we can adjust on the orbit.

686
00:53:51,870 --> 00:53:53,610
We call their orbital elements.

687
00:53:53,850 --> 00:53:56,610
And one of those is the size of the orbit.

688
00:53:56,610 --> 00:54:01,730
And the bigger the orbit, the longer the period, the longer it takes to go once around the orbit.

689
00:54:01,730 --> 00:54:04,870
So here you see different orbits, A, B, C, D, E.

690
00:54:04,970 --> 00:54:07,770
And notice A has a period of 2.7 hours.

691
00:54:07,770 --> 00:54:09,710
B is a period of 8 hours.

692
00:54:09,710 --> 00:54:11,710
C is a period of 18 hours.

693
00:54:11,730 --> 00:54:14,730
And E is a period of about 24 hours.

694
00:54:15,230 --> 00:54:16,910
Notice what's happening to the ground track.

695
00:54:16,910 --> 00:54:19,490
The ground track is getting scrunched together.

696
00:54:19,490 --> 00:54:21,210
That's our technical term, scrunched.

697
00:54:21,210 --> 00:54:27,390
We're getting scrunched together until I get to orbit D, which ends up being a figure eight.

698
00:54:27,610 --> 00:54:30,610
So orbit D, the period is about 24 hours.

699
00:54:30,610 --> 00:54:34,190
So we say it is synchronized with the Earth's rotation.

700
00:54:34,190 --> 00:54:36,450
In other words, it is geosynchronous.

701
00:54:37,010 --> 00:54:38,120
Now, A, B, C, D...

702
00:54:38,670 --> 00:54:41,630
A, B, C, and D have the same inclination.

703
00:54:41,630 --> 00:54:46,510
So inclination is the angle of the orbit with respect to the equator, if you want to think of it that way.

704
00:54:46,510 --> 00:54:50,630
If I was orbiting around the equator, we'd say we have an inclination of zero.

705
00:54:50,630 --> 00:54:54,670
If I was orbiting around the poles, we'd say you have an inclination of 90.

706
00:54:55,470 --> 00:54:59,690
And in the case of A, B, C, and D, they all have an inclination of 50.

707
00:54:59,750 --> 00:55:05,350
And I can tell that by looking at the highest point, the highest latitude that it reaches.

708
00:55:05,350 --> 00:55:07,070
You see over here the high latitude.

709
00:55:07,190 --> 00:55:09,310
I'm glad it was 50 north, 50 south.

710
00:55:09,330 --> 00:55:12,130
So that's telling me the inclination is about 50 degrees.

711
00:55:13,110 --> 00:55:15,350
And then look what happens to orbit E.

712
00:55:15,350 --> 00:55:19,890
Now I slink the inclination, so it now is going around the equator.

713
00:55:20,090 --> 00:55:25,890
And so now the ground track for orbit E is a dot on the equator.

714
00:55:25,890 --> 00:55:29,370
So it is now stationary with respect to that spot.

715
00:55:29,370 --> 00:55:31,830
So we call it geostationary.

716
00:55:31,830 --> 00:55:32,610
It is orbiting.

717
00:55:32,610 --> 00:55:37,610
It's going three kilometers per second, but it's orbiting at the same rate that the Earth rotates.

718
00:55:37,610 --> 00:55:42,690
So that gives me that perception of it being always over the same spot.

719
00:55:42,690 --> 00:55:49,430
It's orbiting exactly the same rate at which the Earth is rotating, which is why it seems to hover over that same spot.

720
00:55:49,430 --> 00:55:51,010
But it's going three kilometers per second.

721
00:55:51,010 --> 00:55:53,010
It's not hovering by any means.

722
00:55:53,190 --> 00:55:58,770
So those different ground tracks give me different opportunities to access the different orbits.

723
00:55:58,810 --> 00:56:00,010
So here's an example.

724
00:56:00,010 --> 00:56:02,410
This is the actual International Space Station.

725
00:56:02,670 --> 00:56:05,890
You can see it going around in orbit, its ground track.

726
00:56:06,110 --> 00:56:10,030
And so you can see the trace it makes on the globe and then the ground track.

727
00:56:10,030 --> 00:56:12,530
So it has an inclination of 51.6 degrees.

728
00:56:13,210 --> 00:56:16,530
That's because they had to launch pieces of it out of Russia.

729
00:56:16,970 --> 00:56:22,850
And the lowest inclination Russia could reach was 51.6 because they launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan.

730
00:56:23,930 --> 00:56:28,570
Would have been easier for us if it had been launched everything from Florida, but that's another story.

731
00:56:28,870 --> 00:56:30,650
So that's our ground track.

732
00:56:30,650 --> 00:56:32,390
This is the International Space Station.

733
00:56:33,490 --> 00:56:34,310
This is what...

734
00:56:34,310 --> 00:56:35,130
Oh, go ahead.

735
00:56:35,130 --> 00:56:36,490
Can I ask a question about that?

736
00:56:36,490 --> 00:56:41,250
So is it because you're closer to the equator, you get more spin from the Earth?

737
00:56:41,250 --> 00:56:42,670
Is that why Florida is better?

738
00:56:42,690 --> 00:56:47,150
Well, yes, that's a short answer.

739
00:56:47,590 --> 00:56:56,910
So when we were launching everything from the shuttle, if we were to launch due east from Florida, we get maximum effect of the Earth's rotation.

740
00:56:56,910 --> 00:57:05,750
But because we had to launch from Florida into 51 degrees, which means we had to go somewhat northeast, we lost capability.

741
00:57:06,370 --> 00:57:15,250
And they ended up having to completely redesign the external tank of the shuttle to remove 8,000 pounds of weight so that they could get the stuff into orbit.

742
00:57:15,250 --> 00:57:19,310
It's quite a heroic tale we could go into offline.

743
00:57:19,310 --> 00:57:20,570
But it all came...

744
00:57:21,090 --> 00:57:22,270
It's amazing.

745
00:57:22,270 --> 00:57:26,590
So politics drove orbital mechanics, which drove technology.

746
00:57:26,590 --> 00:57:27,990
It was pretty amazing.

747
00:57:27,990 --> 00:57:30,350
But that's the way the world works sometimes.

748
00:57:30,630 --> 00:57:32,430
But yeah, great question.

749
00:57:33,690 --> 00:57:36,370
So here's our geostationary satellites.

750
00:57:36,370 --> 00:57:40,010
So what you'll notice here, a couple of things.

751
00:57:40,010 --> 00:57:43,650
One geostationary satellite cannot see the entire Earth.

752
00:57:44,090 --> 00:57:50,230
In fact, to cover the entire equator, you need three satellites, and then you get overlapping coverage.

753
00:57:50,330 --> 00:57:55,930
But a geostationary satellite can only see up to about 70 or 80 degrees latitude.

754
00:57:56,190 --> 00:58:03,230
So you end up with this triangle on the North Pole and the South Pole that a satellite from GEO cannot see.

755
00:58:03,230 --> 00:58:08,890
Or said another way, if I'm on the North Pole, I can't talk to a satellite in geostationary orbit.

756
00:58:08,890 --> 00:58:16,710
So if you have a direct TV dish, and you're planning to move into the North Pole to visit Santa Claus, don't take your TV dish with you.

757
00:58:16,710 --> 00:58:20,310
I don't know what Santa Claus does, but you cannot get direct TV.

758
00:58:20,730 --> 00:58:27,510
So for the most part, we don't care, because there's not that many... nobody lives up there anyway.

759
00:58:27,510 --> 00:58:31,390
However, there are military missions that do care.

760
00:58:31,390 --> 00:58:39,450
And then we all use a different orbit called ammonia orbit or highly elliptical orbit that can cover those high latitude regions.

761
00:58:39,610 --> 00:58:42,150
But I didn't include an example of that.

762
00:58:42,150 --> 00:58:43,890
But if you want to talk about that, we can.

763
00:58:45,550 --> 00:58:47,350
So quick overview then.

764
00:58:47,350 --> 00:58:48,390
This is orbital mechanics.

765
00:58:48,390 --> 00:58:52,910
There's how we calculate some of those things.

766
00:58:52,910 --> 00:58:58,910
I had to put in a second order nonlinear vector differential equation just to see if anybody was paying attention.

767
00:58:59,170 --> 00:59:02,950
But a little bit here of how we solve that equation.

768
00:59:02,950 --> 00:59:05,550
We can talk about in more detail if you want in the break.

769
00:59:06,510 --> 00:59:10,390
But I want to get to operations and then we'll pull up our poll.

770
00:59:10,390 --> 00:59:17,090
So remember, we have these things called mission operation systems, which are all the people, processes, and things need to do missions.

771
00:59:17,090 --> 00:59:23,110
So we have manufacturing, launch, and things like our mission control center, which you're used to seeing on TV.

772
00:59:23,530 --> 00:59:30,970
And then we have our communication architectures, which are all those links that move the data around.

773
00:59:30,970 --> 00:59:33,670
I said space is all about moving the data.

774
00:59:33,670 --> 00:59:37,650
So I have ground stations and control centers and I have relay satellites.

775
00:59:37,650 --> 00:59:40,370
All that's happening to help me move the data.

776
00:59:40,390 --> 00:59:42,830
And I have various methods of doing that.

777
00:59:42,830 --> 00:59:46,630
So there are various networks for helping move that data.

778
00:59:46,630 --> 00:59:53,630
So on the top, we see the Air Force Satellite Control Network, which I guess could now be called the Space Force Satellite Control Network.

779
00:59:53,630 --> 00:59:55,130
I'll never be able to say that.

780
00:59:55,590 --> 01:00:00,010
And it has sites all around the world they use for talking to satellites.

781
01:00:00,010 --> 01:00:05,370
They talk to, what, about 450 different satellites a day, if I recall.

782
01:00:06,150 --> 01:00:07,750
That's the Air Force network.

783
01:00:07,750 --> 01:00:09,010
There's a Navy network.

784
01:00:09,010 --> 01:00:09,970
There's an Army network.

785
01:00:09,970 --> 01:00:11,630
There are commercial networks.

786
01:00:11,630 --> 01:00:14,110
There's a commercial network called Universal Space Network.

787
01:00:14,110 --> 01:00:19,790
And they have sites all over the world that you can rent, basically, by the minute to talk to your satellite.

788
01:00:20,210 --> 01:00:23,310
Then NASA has a deep space network you see there on the bottom.

789
01:00:23,950 --> 01:00:27,530
They have three sites in California, Madrid, and Australia.

790
01:00:27,530 --> 01:00:36,730
And then NASA has something called the Tracking Data Relay Satellite Systems, which are satellites in geostationary orbit that are used to talk to satellites in low-Earth orbit.

791
01:00:36,730 --> 01:00:42,470
So if you see video coming from the International Space Station, it's probably coming through TDRS.

792
01:00:42,470 --> 01:00:44,350
So that's how they relay data.

793
01:00:44,350 --> 01:00:47,730
So all of that represents really critical infrastructure.

794
01:00:47,930 --> 01:00:50,070
Without those, you can't run your mission.

795
01:00:50,070 --> 01:00:55,350
You got to have those to talk to your satellite and your satellite to talk to you.

796
01:00:55,350 --> 01:00:58,250
So those are important parts of the problem here.

797
01:00:58,250 --> 01:01:02,230
And then we have various operational activities we have to accomplish.

798
01:01:02,230 --> 01:01:05,370
So there's nine different activities shown in this cartoon.

799
01:01:05,530 --> 01:01:08,950
The one you're probably most used to thinking about is flight control.

800
01:01:08,950 --> 01:01:14,750
You see upper right there, you see people sitting at a console, you know, with a headset on, you know, managing the mission.

801
01:01:15,030 --> 01:01:17,470
But that's really just the tip of the iceberg, right?

802
01:01:17,470 --> 01:01:19,450
You have people doing planning.

803
01:01:19,450 --> 01:01:21,230
You have people moving the data.

804
01:01:21,230 --> 01:01:27,750
You have people doing tracking, maintenance and support, spacecraft support, mission data archiving, all that, right?

805
01:01:27,750 --> 01:01:32,570
All of these are things that happen to make operations effective.

806
01:01:32,730 --> 01:01:36,310
And a key part of that is that mission data delivery and data processing, right?

807
01:01:36,310 --> 01:01:38,950
Because it's all about moving the ones and zeros.

808
01:01:38,950 --> 01:01:41,610
And these are expensive ones and zeros, right?

809
01:01:41,610 --> 01:01:46,770
If I'm collecting data on what's happening on Mars, that's cost me a lot of money to get that data.

810
01:01:46,770 --> 01:01:48,290
So I want to get that data.

811
01:01:48,290 --> 01:01:52,970
So I have to have the data generators in space and then have the data analyzers on the ground.

812
01:01:52,970 --> 01:01:57,650
And we need to make sure we have the tools in place to do that.

813
01:01:58,090 --> 01:02:03,530
And we have a lot of trade-offs to make in terms of what we do in operations planning.

814
01:02:03,530 --> 01:02:08,150
On one hand, we'd love satellites to just take care of themselves, be 100% autonomous.

815
01:02:08,190 --> 01:02:11,870
On the other hand, we maybe have invested a billion dollars in that satellite.

816
01:02:11,870 --> 01:02:17,990
We don't really want it to just go wandering around the solar system on its own, you know, without supervision.

817
01:02:17,990 --> 01:02:23,910
So there's a trade between spacecraft autonomy and how many people we have on the ground.

818
01:02:23,930 --> 01:02:25,750
And people on the ground are expensive.

819
01:02:25,750 --> 01:02:31,850
For every person you have sitting in a seat on a console, you probably had to hire five people.

820
01:02:32,050 --> 01:02:38,970
Because by the time you, you know, have three shifts a day and then people take vacations and they need training, you know, it adds up.

821
01:02:38,970 --> 01:02:44,310
So for long-term missions, more than half your mission cost can be in operations.

822
01:02:44,570 --> 01:02:45,750
Was there a question?

823
01:02:49,920 --> 01:02:50,800
Okay.

824
01:02:51,260 --> 01:02:53,380
And then, of course, anomaly response, right?

825
01:02:53,380 --> 01:03:01,500
So if I have a CubeSat that I built, you know, a university built and it has a problem, you know, I can get around to fixing it next week and nobody's going to care that much.

826
01:03:01,520 --> 01:03:07,760
But if GPS has a problem, I probably need to fix it right now because we've got, you know, the whole world to pay on.

827
01:03:07,760 --> 01:03:18,920
So that and, you know, understanding the state of health and understanding the new hardware and software that I'm flying are all parts of the trade-offs I have to do in mission operations.

828
01:03:19,600 --> 01:03:27,280
So here are the key tasks again, just as a review of what we have to do in mission operations, there's nine key tasks and the trade-offs that go with that.

829
01:03:27,340 --> 01:03:31,300
And then these are the takeaways from a cybersecurity lens.

830
01:03:31,300 --> 01:03:34,420
First of all, you know, getting to space is hard, right?

831
01:03:34,420 --> 01:03:36,720
Eight kilometers per second, not easy.

832
01:03:36,940 --> 01:03:46,540
Orbital mechanics inherently limits some of the things we can and can't do for space operations and when you can even get an opportunity to talk to the satellite.

833
01:03:46,720 --> 01:03:50,400
And finally, there's a lot of things going on in mission operations.

834
01:03:50,400 --> 01:03:53,740
And that creates a fairly large attack surface.

835
01:03:54,080 --> 01:04:00,900
You know, again, people, processes, and things that I can get into often spread all over the world that I have to be concerned about.

836
01:04:00,900 --> 01:04:07,600
So all of these are important things for us to consider from a cybersecurity and cyberspace lens.

837
01:04:08,340 --> 01:04:12,560
I had a question here, does translation introduce significant orbital effects?

838
01:04:12,560 --> 01:04:14,580
What do you mean by translation?

839
01:04:16,780 --> 01:04:19,460
IRPIN, I don't know how you say your name there.

840
01:04:22,020 --> 01:04:25,140
Can you clarify what you mean by translation in your question?

841
01:04:31,020 --> 01:04:33,760
I'll have to come back to that again.

842
01:04:33,760 --> 01:04:37,780
So it's in the chat, you say, does translation introduce significant orbital effects?

843
01:04:37,780 --> 01:04:39,360
I don't really do that.

844
01:04:39,360 --> 01:04:40,600
Oh, no, you're still there.

845
01:04:40,780 --> 01:04:44,120
IRPIN, if you can, sorry, the Earth's moving around the sun.

846
01:04:46,980 --> 01:04:56,520
No, the Earth is, you know, if I'm in orbit around the sun, the fact the Earth is moving around the sun does not create any orbital effects on the orbit itself.

847
01:04:56,520 --> 01:05:02,020
Now, the sun can have an impact, gravitational impact on my spacecraft.

848
01:05:02,020 --> 01:05:04,700
We call that a gravitational perturbation.

849
01:05:04,760 --> 01:05:06,020
The moon as well.

850
01:05:06,020 --> 01:05:17,620
So if you see out of geostationary orbit, we have these sun-moon effects that actually impact the spacecraft's ability to stay within the box that's been assigned.

851
01:05:17,620 --> 01:05:29,160
And so you have to spend a little bit of energy every year to stay within your box, because if you just leave it alone, the sun and the moon will start to move you outside the box.

852
01:05:29,160 --> 01:05:30,900
And we don't want to be outside the box.

853
01:05:30,900 --> 01:05:32,880
We spend a little energy to do that.

854
01:05:35,260 --> 01:05:37,340
So Matt asked about CubeSat.

855
01:05:37,340 --> 01:05:46,420
So CubeSat was a standard that was invented about 20 years ago by some folks out at Stanford and Cal Poly.

856
01:05:47,080 --> 01:05:50,300
And these guys, and they're still in business today.

857
01:05:50,300 --> 01:05:51,620
I know the guys.

858
01:05:51,620 --> 01:05:58,480
They just decided one day that they were going to define a CubeSat to be 10 by 10 by 10 centimeters.

859
01:05:58,480 --> 01:06:02,560
They just said, okay, 10 is a nice round number in centimeters.

860
01:06:02,920 --> 01:06:05,060
And so that became a CubeSat standard.

861
01:06:05,060 --> 01:06:09,020
Of course, that's a 1U CubeSat, 10 by 10 by 10.

862
01:06:09,020 --> 01:06:12,360
And you can make 2U, 3U, 9U.

863
01:06:12,360 --> 01:06:16,300
People are doing 26U, at which point you become stupid.

864
01:06:16,580 --> 01:06:26,340
But the nice thing is what happened, it became kind of a self-licking ice cream cone in that this became a standard size satellite for a tiny little satellite.

865
01:06:26,340 --> 01:06:28,900
And people then created abilities to launch those.

866
01:06:28,900 --> 01:06:37,440
And so now if you want to launch a satellite, there are a number of companies that will launch CubeSats for you as long as you follow the CubeSat standard.

867
01:06:37,440 --> 01:06:42,440
And it's usually 1, 2, or 3U is the most common that you see.

868
01:06:42,440 --> 01:06:47,480
And if you stick to that standard, then folks like NanoRacks can get you launched in six months.

869
01:06:47,480 --> 01:06:50,500
And the cost is getting down to the point that it's...

870
01:06:50,500 --> 01:06:53,880
that literally high schools are launching their own satellites.

871
01:06:54,580 --> 01:07:03,080
So it's... and that... it makes, of course, now we have this massive proliferation of small satellites, which creates other problems that we'll talk about.

872
01:07:03,080 --> 01:07:11,280
It's really lowered the barrier to entry for a lot of organizations and countries and even schools to build their own satellites.

873
01:07:11,280 --> 01:07:15,500
And that's obviously a good and a bad thing, depending on who you ask.

874
01:07:15,820 --> 01:07:18,160
Did that answer your question, Matt, on that?

875
01:07:18,160 --> 01:07:19,480
Yeah, yeah, it did.

876
01:07:19,480 --> 01:07:21,300
How much... you said it was getting cheap.

877
01:07:21,300 --> 01:07:23,200
How much does it cost to actually launch one?

878
01:07:23,900 --> 01:07:28,180
Launch, I think last time I checked for about a 1U.

879
01:07:28,360 --> 01:07:32,100
And, you know, there's a lot of it depends when it comes to the price tag.

880
01:07:32,100 --> 01:07:36,540
It was in the $50,000 to $100,000 range, I want to say.

881
01:07:37,920 --> 01:07:48,060
And the CubeSat itself, you want to build one that will actually work for, you know, more than a day, you're going to end up spending $100,000, probably anyway.

882
01:07:48,580 --> 01:07:55,560
So, yeah, a couple hundred K, you can get a reasonable CubeSat with a payload that actually can do something.

883
01:07:56,660 --> 01:08:02,620
Which, you know, from millions to hundreds of thousands is pretty good.

884
01:08:03,040 --> 01:08:06,220
And you can, from somebody, you might be able to do it cheap.

885
01:08:06,220 --> 01:08:08,480
That's if you actually wanted to do something.

886
01:08:08,480 --> 01:08:12,100
If you just want to build a toy, you can go cheaper than that.

887
01:08:12,100 --> 01:08:15,780
But people are usually going to go to the trouble, they kind of want it to work.

888
01:08:17,120 --> 01:08:18,960
That was cool, thank you, that was perfect.

889
01:08:19,520 --> 01:08:22,440
All right, let's pull up the poll here.

890
01:08:25,670 --> 01:08:27,050
Let me launch the poll.

891
01:08:27,050 --> 01:08:32,190
While I launch the poll, if anybody has any other questions, I guess that's some good ones there.

892
01:08:34,810 --> 01:08:42,210
So go ahead and answer the poll and then we'll, if you don't have any other questions, we'll start up in about five minutes.

893
01:08:42,210 --> 01:08:44,970
So take the poll, take a stretch.

894
01:08:45,350 --> 01:08:49,590
And then when we come back, we're going to focus on threats.

895
01:08:49,590 --> 01:08:54,970
So we'll look at the natural environment and the human environment in terms of threats.

896
01:08:54,970 --> 01:08:59,510
So if you thought you wanted to be an astronaut, be ready to be disappointed.

897
01:08:59,830 --> 01:09:00,730
Any questions?

898
01:09:00,730 --> 01:09:01,790
Is there a question?

899
01:09:06,680 --> 01:09:11,420
All right, so we'll start up again in a minute or two.

900
01:10:58,100 --> 01:11:02,780
All right, getting there with all the poll answers.

901
01:11:02,780 --> 01:11:07,740
I'll just give you another minute or so and then we'll review that and then start into our next topic.

902
01:11:38,350 --> 01:11:40,350
All right, let's see where we ended up.

903
01:11:40,350 --> 01:11:46,310
All right , so how fast you need to be going?

904
01:11:46,530 --> 01:11:48,610
Eight kilometers per second.

905
01:11:48,610 --> 01:11:51,150
Not 8,000 kilometers per second, that'd be pretty dang fast.

906
01:11:51,350 --> 01:11:53,210
Not the speed of light for sure.

907
01:11:54,010 --> 01:11:58,410
The speed of light is how fast you'd have to be going to go into orbit around a black hole.

908
01:11:59,030 --> 01:12:03,670
But to orbit the Earth, you only need to go on eight kilometers per second.

909
01:12:05,610 --> 01:12:09,710
Can you see any ALEO satellite from any spot on Earth at any time?

910
01:12:09,710 --> 01:12:11,430
No, no, you can't.

911
01:12:11,430 --> 01:12:18,510
So again, the key there was low Earth orbit satellite because low is pretty low, as we're going to see.

912
01:12:19,150 --> 01:12:25,870
And so you can only see it certain times of the day, maybe only a couple of times a day, depending on where you are.

913
01:12:27,150 --> 01:12:30,250
A geostationary satellite definitely cannot see every spot on Earth.

914
01:12:30,250 --> 01:12:35,850
You can only see about a third or so of the Earth at any given time, not even quite a third.

915
01:12:36,310 --> 01:12:41,410
So that means we need multiple geosatellites to provide full coverage.

916
01:12:42,090 --> 01:12:49,650
So if a bad guy wants an opportunity to covertly contact your satellite, they're going to have to wait until that satellite passes over them.

917
01:12:49,650 --> 01:12:56,490
Now they could bounce something through another ground station anywhere.

918
01:12:56,930 --> 01:13:01,750
But if I'm trying to do it directly, I have to wait for it to pass overhead.

919
01:13:01,910 --> 01:13:05,510
And then opportunities to threaten space ops, all of the above.

920
01:13:05,510 --> 01:13:06,350
Everybody got that.

921
01:13:06,350 --> 01:13:11,170
So pretty big threat surface there that we have to concern ourselves with.

922
01:13:12,050 --> 01:13:13,350
So good stuff.

923
01:13:13,630 --> 01:13:14,490
All right.

924
01:13:17,710 --> 01:13:20,370
So who wants to be an astronaut here?

925
01:13:25,120 --> 01:13:26,840
Who wants to be an astronaut?

926
01:13:29,640 --> 01:13:32,500
What if I could just... you didn't have to go through all the training.

927
01:13:32,500 --> 01:13:34,140
I would just get you into space.

928
01:13:34,180 --> 01:13:35,460
Yeah, sounds great.

929
01:13:37,240 --> 01:13:38,440
All right.

930
01:13:39,280 --> 01:13:44,060
Well, after we go through this section, let's see if that's still the case.

931
01:13:44,060 --> 01:13:49,320
All right, so here we're going to look at threats.

932
01:13:49,320 --> 01:13:51,840
We're going to look at natural threats and man-made threats.

933
01:13:52,060 --> 01:13:55,320
As we're going to see, the natural threats are bad enough.

934
01:13:55,400 --> 01:13:59,880
And we don't need to give me human threats because we've got enough to deal with, it turns out.

935
01:14:00,000 --> 01:14:02,720
So we want to look at both kinds, though.

936
01:14:03,140 --> 01:14:12,680
And the natural threats especially are important because about a quarter of all anomalies in spacecraft experience are a direct result of the natural environment.

937
01:14:12,680 --> 01:14:20,220
So you can read all the different things that have happened over the years to different satellites because of the natural environment.

938
01:14:21,540 --> 01:14:25,560
There was a radiation storm that affected the STEREO satellites.

939
01:14:26,360 --> 01:14:32,920
There was a coronal mass ejection that impacted the Dawn satellite when it was orbiting Ceres.

940
01:14:33,780 --> 01:14:42,240
The Galaxy 15 one is interesting because, again, this was having to do with electrostatic discharge because of a solar flare.

941
01:14:42,260 --> 01:14:44,620
And that satellite lost its mind.

942
01:14:45,080 --> 01:14:49,680
It was wandering around geostationary orbit out of control.

943
01:14:49,680 --> 01:14:54,320
Some people on the ground could not send it any commands, but it was broadcasting.

944
01:14:54,320 --> 01:14:56,720
It was on and it was broadcasting.

945
01:14:56,720 --> 01:15:01,080
So it was interfering both physically and RF to other satellites.

946
01:15:01,080 --> 01:15:05,620
Other satellites had to actually get out of the way of it.

947
01:15:06,400 --> 01:15:17,600
And then eventually, it kind of accidentally pointed away from the sun and the battery discharged and it did kind of a control-alt-delete and reset itself.

948
01:15:17,600 --> 01:15:18,920
And then it was fine.

949
01:15:18,920 --> 01:15:21,900
So that was a crazy one.

950
01:15:22,000 --> 01:15:28,660
And then this animation in the top here, you see an impact of this is a collision between two satellites.

951
01:15:28,660 --> 01:15:31,080
One is a dead satellite, one is a live satellite.

952
01:15:31,300 --> 01:15:33,860
And that caused a whole bunch of debris.

953
01:15:33,860 --> 01:15:38,860
So these are all just issues that come up because of the space environment.

954
01:15:39,680 --> 01:15:43,160
Because space is dangerous, and you got a lot to worry about up there.

955
01:16:15,410 --> 01:16:17,470
So no beans on the space station.

956
01:16:17,470 --> 01:16:18,470
Just keep that in mind.

957
01:16:18,470 --> 01:16:20,490
Don't fart in a space suit.

958
01:16:20,950 --> 01:16:22,810
But so where's space?

959
01:16:22,810 --> 01:16:25,210
It turns out space is not very far away.

960
01:16:25,490 --> 01:16:29,190
So about 100 kilometers, 60 miles straight up, if you could drive straight up.

961
01:16:29,730 --> 01:16:37,090
There's something called the carbon line that kind of defines, you know, a generally accepted beginning of space.

962
01:16:37,090 --> 01:16:41,950
But there really is no internationally defined exactly where space begins.

963
01:16:42,310 --> 01:16:47,070
In fact, if you're only at 100 kilometers, you couldn't stay in orbit because there's just too much drag.

964
01:16:47,210 --> 01:16:53,290
I need to be at least another 20 miles further before you can even have a hope of staying in orbit very long.

965
01:16:53,290 --> 01:16:55,390
And really, you want to be even higher than that.

966
01:16:56,020 --> 01:17:05,130
So if any of you bought your tickets to ride on Virgin Galactic, I guess it's going to be early next year now, 200,000 bucks, you're going to get a ride to space.

967
01:17:05,190 --> 01:17:08,090
And they're going to define space as 100 kilometers.

968
01:17:08,090 --> 01:17:12,030
So you're not going to go into orbit, you're going to go up and come down.

969
01:17:12,190 --> 01:17:15,950
But hey, 200,000 bucks, you know, trillionaires, there you go.

970
01:17:15,950 --> 01:17:17,490
So space isn't that far away.

971
01:17:17,490 --> 01:17:24,330
So if you imagine the Earth were the size of a peach, the International Space Station is just above the fuzz.

972
01:17:24,330 --> 01:17:26,810
So the fuzz represents the atmosphere.

973
01:17:26,810 --> 01:17:28,150
It's just a little fuzz.

974
01:17:28,290 --> 01:17:29,670
And we're not that high up.

975
01:17:29,670 --> 01:17:31,270
I mean, we're like right there.

976
01:17:31,270 --> 01:17:35,270
In fact, it's not even a scale in that picture because it's too hard to draw it that close.

977
01:17:35,710 --> 01:17:37,350
Really, really, really close.

978
01:17:38,850 --> 01:17:40,270
That's to get to space.

979
01:17:40,270 --> 01:17:43,070
Now, once I get in space, space is really, really, really big.

980
01:17:43,070 --> 01:17:49,650
You know, so to try to put those distances in perspective, we tried to put some things to scale here.

981
01:17:49,650 --> 01:17:56,410
So imagine the sun were the size of a house, then the Earth is the size of a baseball.

982
01:17:56,410 --> 01:18:03,010
So roughly what, about 8 centimeters or so in diameter, 10 centimeters in diameter.

983
01:18:03,350 --> 01:18:07,810
But it's 1.2 kilometers away or, you know, three-fourths of a mile away.

984
01:18:07,810 --> 01:18:09,710
That's how far away we are from the sun.

985
01:18:09,710 --> 01:18:13,890
And the moon is the size of a large marble, about an inch in diameter.

986
01:18:13,890 --> 01:18:17,050
And it's 10 feet away or three meters away.

987
01:18:17,050 --> 01:18:23,490
And this is the one I have trouble wrapping my head around because, you know, you look at the moon at night, it seems closer than that.

988
01:18:23,490 --> 01:18:25,470
It seems bigger than that.

989
01:18:25,470 --> 01:18:30,430
But it's really just optical illusion and how our brain processes stuff.

990
01:18:30,470 --> 01:18:38,310
So the moon, you know, get a baseball and a marble out sometime and pace off the distance and you'll just, you won't believe it, but it's true.

991
01:18:38,350 --> 01:18:42,230
I've re-ran the numbers many times and that's how it works out.

992
01:18:42,970 --> 01:18:47,890
And then you go to Pluto and Pluto is, you know, 20, almost 30 miles away.

993
01:18:47,890 --> 01:18:51,850
And again, about the size of a marble, 30 miles away from the sun.

994
01:18:51,850 --> 01:18:58,750
So, you know, the size of the solar system is a little hard for us to grasp really.

995
01:18:58,750 --> 01:19:01,430
So huge distances involved here.

996
01:19:02,010 --> 01:19:07,330
But once I get out to those distances, once I'm out there in space, there's a lot of nasty stuff I have to worry about.

997
01:19:07,330 --> 01:19:09,850
So there's six main things that we worry about.

998
01:19:09,850 --> 01:19:18,290
Gravitational environment, the atmosphere or lack thereof and being in a vacuum, the debris environment, and then radiation and charged particles.

999
01:19:18,290 --> 01:19:20,950
So I'm not going to say much about the gravitational environment.

1000
01:19:20,950 --> 01:19:25,610
That tends to be a bigger issue for fluid handling and especially for humans.

1001
01:19:25,950 --> 01:19:31,250
But we're going to focus on the things that are the biggest threats to spacecraft, which are all the other things.

1002
01:19:32,070 --> 01:19:36,190
So let's start with atmosphere, drag, and atomic oxygen.

1003
01:19:36,190 --> 01:19:42,230
In low Earth orbit, there's still a little bit of drag, and there's still a little bit of atmosphere that's going to slow me down.

1004
01:19:43,590 --> 01:19:46,330
The atmosphere basically is like friction.

1005
01:19:46,770 --> 01:19:50,250
When I'm starting a spacecraft, it's going to rob energy from my orbit.

1006
01:19:50,250 --> 01:19:53,570
Remember I said the bigger the orbit, the more energy.

1007
01:19:53,790 --> 01:19:56,690
So if I take energy out of the orbit, the orbit gets smaller.

1008
01:19:56,910 --> 01:19:58,150
We're getting smaller.

1009
01:19:58,150 --> 01:20:01,690
Eventually it gets so small that I re-enter the atmosphere completely.

1010
01:20:02,090 --> 01:20:05,830
That atmosphere decreases exponentially with altitude.

1011
01:20:05,830 --> 01:20:12,230
Come visit us here in Colorado and get off the plane, and you'll know immediately that the atmosphere has decreased a bit from sea level.

1012
01:20:12,570 --> 01:20:15,070
The atmosphere doesn't go completely away ever.

1013
01:20:15,070 --> 01:20:18,610
Well, not ever, but it goes up to...

1014
01:20:18,610 --> 01:20:26,470
NASA detected molecules of the atmosphere up to about out by the moon, but those are like molecules they detected.

1015
01:20:27,190 --> 01:20:33,250
So in terms of low Earth orbit, we use 600 kilometers as kind of a rough rule of thumb.

1016
01:20:33,250 --> 01:20:41,550
In other words, if we're below about 600 kilometers, then atmosphere drag is something we probably have to worry about.

1017
01:20:41,570 --> 01:20:45,290
If we're above 600, then probably it's nothing we need to worry about.

1018
01:20:45,390 --> 01:20:48,150
But again, it's not hard and fast, it's just roughly.

1019
01:20:48,450 --> 01:20:55,450
Because when I look at that drag equation there on the left, the drag that I get from a satellite depends on a number of things.

1020
01:20:55,450 --> 01:21:04,350
One of the things it depends on is the velocity, how fast I'm going, the drag coefficient, basically the shape, and then the cross-sectional area of the spacecraft.

1021
01:21:04,350 --> 01:21:06,010
So I know most of those things.

1022
01:21:06,010 --> 01:21:12,290
What I don't know very well is the density, because that density of the atmosphere changes day and night.

1023
01:21:12,290 --> 01:21:19,030
It changes with season, it changes with latitude, and it changes based on what mood the sun happens to be in.

1024
01:21:19,130 --> 01:21:26,950
And the sun goes through these 11-year cycles of moods, at least as long as we've been watching it, which isn't that long, really.

1025
01:21:26,950 --> 01:21:30,210
But so far, it's 11 years as far as we can tell.

1026
01:21:30,210 --> 01:21:34,110
And we're actually just coming off the latest solar minimum.

1027
01:21:34,110 --> 01:21:39,930
So the sun is always putting out these charged particles I'm going to talk about, and we call the solar wind.

1028
01:21:39,930 --> 01:21:42,850
So these charged particles are always coming out from the sun.

1029
01:21:43,150 --> 01:21:46,450
And think of that as a constant breeze coming from the sun.

1030
01:21:46,450 --> 01:21:50,730
But the sun is going to get more active, less active over this 11-year cycle.

1031
01:21:50,730 --> 01:21:58,230
Right now, we're just coming off the solar min, about ready to start back into the next high part of the cycle.

1032
01:21:59,010 --> 01:22:04,330
When the sun is not very active, the atmosphere contracts, which means there's less drag.

1033
01:22:04,330 --> 01:22:08,650
When the sun is fairly active, the atmosphere expands, which means there's more drag.

1034
01:22:08,650 --> 01:22:11,590
So we've been going through a period of relatively low drag.

1035
01:22:11,590 --> 01:22:16,870
We're starting our period of relatively high drag over the next six to eight years.

1036
01:22:17,770 --> 01:22:27,590
In addition, when UV light hits oxygen molecules in the upper atmosphere, they break apart into atomic oxygen.

1037
01:22:27,590 --> 01:22:32,370
Individual atoms of oxygen, which are very reactive.

1038
01:22:32,450 --> 01:22:35,070
Oxygen by itself, as you know, is very reactive.

1039
01:22:35,070 --> 01:22:36,790
That's why things rust.

1040
01:22:36,950 --> 01:22:42,730
But when I have atomic oxygen, it's even more reactive, and that can cause damage to the surface of your satellite.

1041
01:22:42,790 --> 01:22:45,230
So these are issues of simply the atmosphere.

1042
01:22:45,350 --> 01:22:48,530
Again, generally issues below about 600 kilometers.

1043
01:22:48,530 --> 01:22:50,770
The International Space Station is at 400 kilometers.

1044
01:22:50,770 --> 01:22:52,950
So yeah, it has to worry about this stuff.

1045
01:22:52,950 --> 01:23:01,030
If we didn't do anything to the International Space Station, at solar maximum, the International Space Station would re-enter in about three months.

1046
01:23:01,410 --> 01:23:05,290
At solar minimum, which is where we've been, it'll re-enter in a couple of years.

1047
01:23:05,330 --> 01:23:09,910
But it's a big difference between maximum and minimum in terms of how that impacts drag.

1048
01:23:10,830 --> 01:23:12,770
But for the most part, space sucks.

1049
01:23:12,770 --> 01:23:13,710
We're in a vacuum.

1050
01:23:13,710 --> 01:23:16,370
Because we're in a vacuum, we have other things to worry about.

1051
01:23:16,410 --> 01:23:18,650
One of the things we have to worry about is called outgassing.

1052
01:23:18,650 --> 01:23:23,950
So if you have a soda bottle, you shake up the soda bottle and open up the top, you're going to hear the fizz.

1053
01:23:23,950 --> 01:23:24,770
Well, what's happening?

1054
01:23:25,330 --> 01:23:28,650
You're releasing pressure and the gas is escaping.

1055
01:23:28,650 --> 01:23:33,710
So the dissolved gas in the liquid is escaping because of the released pressure.

1056
01:23:33,710 --> 01:23:36,550
Same thing can happen in space with materials.

1057
01:23:36,550 --> 01:23:47,810
So if I have polymers or adhesives or anything like that, they tend to, during manufacturing, they'll have alcohols and other volatiles that'll get stored in there.

1058
01:23:47,810 --> 01:23:50,210
When I release the pressure, those things will come off.

1059
01:23:50,210 --> 01:23:52,630
We call that outgassing.

1060
01:23:54,090 --> 01:24:00,910
And in space, there's one really important law that governs everything we do, and that's called Murphy's Law.

1061
01:24:01,190 --> 01:24:03,050
If you're from England, it's called Sod's Law.

1062
01:24:03,050 --> 01:24:04,170
Don't ask me why they're different.

1063
01:24:04,170 --> 01:24:08,490
But the laws are different, the guy's different, the law's the same.

1064
01:24:08,490 --> 01:24:13,710
And Murphy's or Sod's Law says that anything that can happen will happen at the worst possible time.

1065
01:24:13,710 --> 01:24:23,850
And the corollary to that in space for outgassing is that outgassing will go wherever you don't want it to go, which is probably on the surface of your mirror or sensor or things like that.

1066
01:24:23,850 --> 01:24:29,730
We also worry about offgassing inside where the crew lives, because the crew has to smell everything.

1067
01:24:29,730 --> 01:24:33,750
You know, if you ever bought a new car, then a car smells like a new car.

1068
01:24:33,750 --> 01:24:35,230
Well, what's new car smell?

1069
01:24:35,230 --> 01:24:37,810
It's outgassing plastic, right?

1070
01:24:37,810 --> 01:24:41,050
Now in your car, you simply roll down the window and you don't have to smell it anymore.

1071
01:24:41,050 --> 01:24:46,530
But if I'm at the International Space Station and I have a smell like that, I can't roll down the window, right?

1072
01:24:46,530 --> 01:24:48,270
There's not, that's not going to work for me.

1073
01:24:48,290 --> 01:24:51,310
So that becomes a hazard for astronauts.

1074
01:24:51,310 --> 01:24:56,850
They want to make sure they don't have anything smelly like that, meaning they'll off-gas plastics or things like that.

1075
01:24:56,910 --> 01:24:58,970
We can also get cold welding in a vacuum.

1076
01:24:58,970 --> 01:25:05,790
This is where two pieces of metal can literally get fused together because we get a weak molecular bond between the two pieces.

1077
01:25:06,070 --> 01:25:18,950
We can get tin whiskers that can form on tin solder, which is why we like to have a bit of lead in the solder so we don't do that in space because that crystallization can cause a failure of solder joints.

1078
01:25:18,950 --> 01:25:24,790
And probably the most problematic thing for being in a vacuum in space has to do with heat transfer.

1079
01:25:24,810 --> 01:25:28,610
There are three ways to move heat, convection, conduction, radiation.

1080
01:25:30,370 --> 01:25:35,330
Convection is what's keeping you cool here in your room, air blowing around you.

1081
01:25:35,830 --> 01:25:39,770
Conduction, you feel when you stir your coffee with a metal spoon.

1082
01:25:39,770 --> 01:25:43,970
And then radiation is what you feel when you actually feel the heat coming off a fire.

1083
01:25:43,970 --> 01:25:47,050
Well, in a vacuum, I can't conduct anything.

1084
01:25:47,050 --> 01:25:49,530
I don't have any air blowing around me.

1085
01:25:50,070 --> 01:25:56,190
So the only way heat's getting in and the only way heat's getting out of my satellite is through radiation.

1086
01:25:56,430 --> 01:26:03,270
So you see on the right there, the bottom right, you see the radiator panels on the International Space Station.

1087
01:26:03,270 --> 01:26:04,990
So they use ammonia loops.

1088
01:26:04,990 --> 01:26:13,650
So the ammonia flows around where the astronauts live, carries the heat, goes through those panels where it is radiated into space.

1089
01:26:13,650 --> 01:26:18,870
And then it cools off the ammonia, and then the ammonia does another trip back through where the astronauts live.

1090
01:26:18,870 --> 01:26:28,930
So we do testing in space using these chambers you see at the top, a thermal vacuum chamber, to make sure we know how things will behave, spacecraft will behave when we get up there into space.

1091
01:26:29,410 --> 01:26:34,970
So that thing on the front of your car that cools your engine, what's that called?

1092
01:26:38,310 --> 01:26:41,870
What do you call that thing in the front of your engine that cools your engine?

1093
01:26:42,950 --> 01:26:43,690
Radiator.

1094
01:26:43,810 --> 01:26:44,690
Radiator.

1095
01:26:44,690 --> 01:26:46,650
How does it cool your engine?

1096
01:26:49,290 --> 01:26:50,750
Heat transfer.

1097
01:26:50,930 --> 01:26:55,510
Yeah, convective heat transfer, not radiative heat transfer.

1098
01:26:55,510 --> 01:26:57,750
That thing should be called a convector.

1099
01:26:57,750 --> 01:27:02,790
I'm on a campaign to change its name, because I'm tired of people calling it a radiator .

1100
01:27:02,790 --> 01:27:04,430
It's a convector, right?

1101
01:27:04,430 --> 01:27:09,870
You're pumping fluid around the engine block, and then air blows over the vanes and cools the fluid.

1102
01:27:09,870 --> 01:27:11,350
That is not radiation.

1103
01:27:11,350 --> 01:27:13,110
That is convection, my friend.

1104
01:27:13,550 --> 01:27:18,830
By the next time you go by, make sure you buy the convector fluid, not the radiator fluid.

1105
01:27:18,830 --> 01:27:21,870
It's a little more expensive, but it's more precise.

1106
01:27:21,990 --> 01:27:25,870
Anyway, so that's an issue with being in a vacuum.

1107
01:27:26,110 --> 01:27:29,050
Another issue being in space is all the junk.

1108
01:27:29,090 --> 01:27:31,410
So here's the history of the junk.

1109
01:29:21,780 --> 01:29:25,220
It's important to note that each of those little blobs are not to scale.

1110
01:29:26,580 --> 01:29:30,440
So we're up to 20,000 objects.

1111
01:29:30,460 --> 01:29:33,040
In space that we're currently tracking.

1112
01:29:33,040 --> 01:29:35,120
So this is the box score.

1113
01:29:35,120 --> 01:29:38,520
This comes out quarterly, so this is the last one that came out.

1114
01:29:38,520 --> 01:29:40,840
So we're just over 20,000 objects.

1115
01:29:41,960 --> 01:29:43,800
Nancy, that's from AGI.

1116
01:29:43,800 --> 01:29:45,500
I think I got that off of YouTube.

1117
01:29:45,760 --> 01:29:47,020
You could Google it.

1118
01:29:47,380 --> 01:29:49,140
They may even have a newer one.

1119
01:29:49,160 --> 01:29:52,600
They put a new one out every once in a while, because you notice that one's about four years old.

1120
01:29:54,440 --> 01:29:59,360
But 20,000 objects that are 10 centimeters or bigger.

1121
01:29:59,360 --> 01:30:02,080
So think softball size or bigger.

1122
01:30:02,700 --> 01:30:05,480
And that's a limit of what we're able to track.

1123
01:30:05,480 --> 01:30:07,900
So we have tracking capabilities on the ground.

1124
01:30:07,900 --> 01:30:08,480
So the U.S.

1125
01:30:08,480 --> 01:30:10,960
Space Force is now in charge of keeping track of that.

1126
01:30:10,960 --> 01:30:18,880
We have a satellite space surveillance network of satellite of ground systems that track that radar systems.

1127
01:30:19,260 --> 01:30:27,440
And currently the limit is about 10 centimeters in low Earth orbit and about beach ball size out of geostationary orbit.

1128
01:30:27,440 --> 01:30:30,480
That capability is about ready to change.

1129
01:30:30,480 --> 01:30:37,340
The Space Force is about ready to bring operational a thing called the space fence, which means they'll be able to track things smaller.

1130
01:30:37,540 --> 01:30:40,180
How much smaller depends.

1131
01:30:40,880 --> 01:30:47,200
But people are saying what's going to happen is that number is going to change by a lot, maybe by an order of magnitude.

1132
01:30:48,160 --> 01:30:53,480
Just because we'll be able to see things that now we know we're sure are there, but we can't see them.

1133
01:30:53,480 --> 01:30:55,460
So now we are blissfully ignorant.

1134
01:30:55,460 --> 01:30:59,380
But then we'll be able to start seeing them and we can't be blissfully ignorant anymore.

1135
01:30:59,380 --> 01:31:05,240
So now instead of 20,000 objects to see, we'll have 200,000 or more that we'll have to keep track of.

1136
01:31:06,060 --> 01:31:09,020
And that just keeps continuing to proliferate.

1137
01:31:09,020 --> 01:31:14,780
There have been numerous satellites damaged by debris and numerous other satellites.

1138
01:31:15,040 --> 01:31:19,480
Maneuvering to avoid debris has become fairly routine.

1139
01:31:20,400 --> 01:31:26,180
Every time I have to move my satellite, I'm spending propellant that I'm never going to get back.

1140
01:31:27,120 --> 01:31:35,420
It's interesting, you look at geostationary, we once worked out what propellant is worth at geostationary orbit.

1141
01:31:35,420 --> 01:31:39,500
Because a geostationary satellite makes like $100 million a year revenue.

1142
01:31:39,500 --> 01:31:45,260
If you work out what the propellant is worth per gram, it's more expensive than plutonium.

1143
01:31:45,660 --> 01:31:47,880
I mean, it's way more expensive than gold.

1144
01:31:47,880 --> 01:31:49,900
It's more expensive than plutonium.

1145
01:31:50,080 --> 01:31:55,100
So if I have to spend some of those precious grams of propellant, I'm not going to be happy.

1146
01:31:55,120 --> 01:31:59,280
I'm going to have to dodge a piece of junk, you know what I'm saying?

1147
01:31:59,320 --> 01:32:01,940
But that's the situation that we're dealing with.

1148
01:32:03,080 --> 01:32:05,460
But the big dog in space is the sun.

1149
01:32:05,460 --> 01:32:09,020
So the sun is putting out a number of things we have to pay attention to.

1150
01:32:09,020 --> 01:32:11,660
First of all is electromagnetic radiation.

1151
01:32:11,660 --> 01:32:17,000
So the physicists, you know, they use this word radiation, and they're not always clear about what they mean.

1152
01:32:17,000 --> 01:32:23,500
So I'm going to distinguish between electromagnetic radiation and ionizing radiation, aka charged particles.

1153
01:32:23,500 --> 01:32:27,740
So for electromagnetic radiation, we mean light and heat, right?

1154
01:32:27,740 --> 01:32:33,560
And all across the electromagnetic spectrum, literally from X-rays and gamma rays all the way up the radio waves.

1155
01:32:34,260 --> 01:32:36,880
You see the graph up there of the output of the sun.

1156
01:32:36,880 --> 01:32:42,560
Most of the sun's output at EM, not too amazingly, is right in the middle of the visible.

1157
01:32:42,660 --> 01:32:46,120
And that's a function of Wien's law, it turns out.

1158
01:32:46,120 --> 01:32:49,540
But you see, this is actually Planck's law plotted there.

1159
01:32:49,540 --> 01:32:53,300
But the peak of that curve is right in the middle of the visible.

1160
01:32:53,500 --> 01:32:57,440
Which is convenient for us because that's what we can see.

1161
01:32:57,660 --> 01:33:02,280
But the range is all the way from X-rays all the way up to radio waves.

1162
01:33:02,760 --> 01:33:06,480
So the infrared, of course, is going to cause heating.

1163
01:33:06,480 --> 01:33:09,140
The light we can turn into solar energy.

1164
01:33:09,700 --> 01:33:12,160
Ultraviolet can cause damage of our surfaces.

1165
01:33:12,300 --> 01:33:14,560
We can get radio interference from the sun.

1166
01:33:14,560 --> 01:33:17,860
The sun is actually very noisy from a radio standpoint.

1167
01:33:18,720 --> 01:33:21,480
And we actually get solar pressure.

1168
01:33:21,480 --> 01:33:24,240
Force from the sun, from light.

1169
01:33:24,240 --> 01:33:27,540
So light is made up of waves or particles.

1170
01:33:27,540 --> 01:33:30,740
Depending on what mood you happen to be in when you do the experiment.

1171
01:33:30,900 --> 01:33:33,540
And if it's a particle, we call that a photon.

1172
01:33:33,540 --> 01:33:35,960
Now, photons do not have mass.

1173
01:33:35,960 --> 01:33:37,680
Turns out they don't have volume either.

1174
01:33:37,980 --> 01:33:40,780
But they do have momentum.

1175
01:33:41,840 --> 01:33:43,880
That's a quantum thing.

1176
01:33:43,920 --> 01:33:47,700
So a photon can actually transfer momentum to you.

1177
01:33:47,700 --> 01:33:48,780
And it's not much.

1178
01:33:48,780 --> 01:33:50,700
It's like five newtons per square kilometer.

1179
01:33:50,700 --> 01:33:55,740
But if I have big old solar rays hanging out for my satellite, that can be significant over time.

1180
01:33:55,740 --> 01:34:03,200
And if I had a really big sail, I could literally sail around the solar system, harnessing the pressure of light as I did that.

1181
01:34:03,860 --> 01:34:05,420
So I have to worry about that.

1182
01:34:05,420 --> 01:34:08,320
But probably the bigger worry are the charged particles.

1183
01:34:08,660 --> 01:34:12,480
So by charged particle, I have to go back to the definition of an atom.

1184
01:34:12,480 --> 01:34:17,760
If you guys remember the Bohr model of an atom, where in the nucleus you have a proton and electron.

1185
01:34:17,780 --> 01:34:20,660
Proton being positive and then the electron being negative.

1186
01:34:20,660 --> 01:34:22,920
Going around the outside there and the neutron neutral.

1187
01:34:23,460 --> 01:34:25,780
And you probably know the story about the two atoms.

1188
01:34:26,020 --> 01:34:27,400
Two atoms were walking down the road.

1189
01:34:27,400 --> 01:34:30,500
One fell down and his buddy helped him back up and said, are you sure?

1190
01:34:30,500 --> 01:34:31,700
Or he said, are you okay?

1191
01:34:31,700 --> 01:34:34,180
He says, no, I think I lost an electron.

1192
01:34:34,320 --> 01:34:35,160
He said, are you sure?

1193
01:34:35,160 --> 01:34:36,380
He said, yeah, I'm positive.

1194
01:34:36,740 --> 01:34:38,560
So that's how you know you lost an electron.

1195
01:34:39,040 --> 01:34:44,160
And neutron walked into a bar and the bartender said, for you, no charge.

1196
01:34:47,860 --> 01:34:51,780
Bartender said, we don't serve faster than light particles in here.

1197
01:34:51,780 --> 01:34:53,860
The tachyon walked into a bar.

1198
01:34:54,120 --> 01:34:55,900
So think about that one.

1199
01:34:55,960 --> 01:34:58,400
So I got these charged particles.

1200
01:34:58,400 --> 01:35:01,820
I have ions, which are positively charged.

1201
01:35:01,820 --> 01:35:03,800
And then I have electrons or negative.

1202
01:35:03,800 --> 01:35:08,360
And they're coming from the solar wind, which I said, there's this constant breeze coming off the sun.

1203
01:35:08,360 --> 01:35:10,920
And then occasionally I get these big solar particle events.

1204
01:35:10,920 --> 01:35:13,440
It's like a gust of these charged particles.

1205
01:35:13,440 --> 01:35:16,360
I also get them coming from outside the solar system.

1206
01:35:16,360 --> 01:35:18,640
We call those galactic cosmic rays.

1207
01:35:18,640 --> 01:35:24,280
And then I get them concentrated in the Van Allen radiation belts in the Earth's magnetic field.

1208
01:35:24,280 --> 01:35:26,760
So I kind of can't escape these things.

1209
01:35:26,760 --> 01:35:37,560
And if you're watching that video on the bottom, you're seeing the sensors on the SOHO satellite start sort of fizzed out there when it got hit by a big solar particle event.

1210
01:35:37,560 --> 01:35:40,080
So it affected the sensor there.

1211
01:35:40,240 --> 01:35:43,580
So these charged particles come in kind of two flavors.

1212
01:35:44,440 --> 01:35:47,900
But we're going to worry about low energy and the high energy.

1213
01:35:48,940 --> 01:35:52,060
Stuff and the low energy we'll call plasma.

1214
01:35:52,200 --> 01:35:57,760
So the plasma effects having to do with arcing, the plasma effects are mainly going to be on the surface.

1215
01:35:57,760 --> 01:36:05,800
So arcing, electrostatic discharge, electromagnetic interference, and re-attracting of contaminants.

1216
01:36:05,800 --> 01:36:10,540
Mostly this is going to be a problem at a geo, less so at LEO, and mainly on the surface.

1217
01:36:10,540 --> 01:36:16,480
So this is an annoyance, but not something that's going to really be a big problem.

1218
01:36:16,480 --> 01:36:17,920
I just noticed Pete's question there.

1219
01:36:17,920 --> 01:36:20,460
Can an entire orbit be taken out with debris?

1220
01:36:22,720 --> 01:36:24,320
We're almost there.

1221
01:36:24,320 --> 01:36:29,860
You see that there were some popular orbits there, geostationary, you actually see a ring.

1222
01:36:29,940 --> 01:36:37,800
And then in low Earth orbit, especially the sun synchronous orbits, they're getting so popular that there's a lot of debris built up there.

1223
01:36:37,800 --> 01:36:43,660
Not to the point that that orbit is unusable, but there's certainly more debris in some orbits than others.

1224
01:36:43,660 --> 01:36:44,480
That's for sure.

1225
01:36:44,480 --> 01:36:46,260
So thanks for that question, Pete.

1226
01:36:47,540 --> 01:36:51,740
Probably the most problematic issue has to do with the high energy charged particles.

1227
01:36:51,740 --> 01:37:01,060
And so every once in a while, the sun burps out a big bunch of charged particles in a coronal mass ejection, shown in this animation in the upper right there.

1228
01:37:01,160 --> 01:37:04,040
Luckily, most of the time, it's not aimed at us.

1229
01:37:04,060 --> 01:37:07,120
But if it is, we got to be ready.

1230
01:37:07,120 --> 01:37:11,220
So we get this big coronal mass ejection, all these big gusts of charged particles.

1231
01:37:11,280 --> 01:37:13,880
Lucky for us, we have our shields up.

1232
01:37:14,380 --> 01:37:20,640
So our Earth's magnetic field protects us from that big blob of charged particles, deflecting most of it.

1233
01:37:20,660 --> 01:37:24,380
But some of those charged particles get trapped within the field lines.

1234
01:37:24,420 --> 01:37:38,940
And then they go down and interact at the field generators, where the Klingons always target down there, and interact at the poles where the field lines come together and cause excitation of the atmosphere, which causes the glow, which is the Northern Lights and the Southern Lights.

1235
01:37:39,080 --> 01:37:49,140
Now, for our spacecraft, those charged particles, those high energy ones, are going to go whipping through the surface of our satellite, like it's not even there, and go right through our electronics.

1236
01:37:49,140 --> 01:37:59,420
And if it happens to hit the right spot, if the little bullet happens to be in the wrong place at the wrong time, then it can cause a latch up of one of the transistors on your microprocessor.

1237
01:37:59,420 --> 01:38:03,640
It can affect the ability for your semiconductor to carry charge.

1238
01:38:03,860 --> 01:38:07,780
And all that can have problems in terms of how your system's going to behave.

1239
01:38:07,780 --> 01:38:11,240
So there's immediate effects here we call single event phenomenon.

1240
01:38:11,240 --> 01:38:12,860
And they happen like that.

1241
01:38:12,860 --> 01:38:18,580
I mean, they're like little bullets going in all the time that are causing issues with how our system is going to behave.

1242
01:38:18,580 --> 01:38:23,920
It can flip a bit, it can latch up a part of a transistor.

1243
01:38:24,180 --> 01:38:25,840
And there's sort of two effects here.

1244
01:38:25,840 --> 01:38:29,440
I think of them in terms of sunburn and skin cancer.

1245
01:38:29,440 --> 01:38:34,160
So the sunburns happening today, skin cancer is happening over many years.

1246
01:38:34,160 --> 01:38:44,400
So you get an immediate effect, and then you get a, we call it total dose effect of accumulative degradation, the ability for our semiconductor to actually work.

1247
01:38:44,400 --> 01:38:53,580
So at some point, it simply stops working after some number of months or years, depending on the substrate material and depending on the orbit that I'm in.

1248
01:38:53,660 --> 01:38:59,000
That total dose then eventually causes my system to simply shut down, stop working.

1249
01:38:59,080 --> 01:39:07,020
And we can look for materials that are less susceptible, but eventually everything succumbs.

1250
01:39:07,020 --> 01:39:19,600
We have not found a system that is 100%, you know, unless you go back to iron core memory, anything that's a semiconductor is eventually going to succumb, at least as far as the technology we know now.

1251
01:39:19,680 --> 01:39:21,740
So we can use some shielding.

1252
01:39:21,740 --> 01:39:25,600
People usually guess lead is the best shielding, but it turns out that's not the best.

1253
01:39:25,600 --> 01:39:29,840
It turns out hydrogen is the best shielding, but hydrogen is not very convenient.

1254
01:39:30,200 --> 01:39:35,660
Water would be next best, but if I have humans on board, I probably have water anyway, so that's good.

1255
01:39:35,660 --> 01:39:42,500
On the International Space Station, they actually use polyethylene, high density polyethylene, a couple of inches of that.

1256
01:39:42,600 --> 01:39:45,680
The polyethylene is a hydrocarbon, so there's a lot of hydrogen there.

1257
01:39:45,680 --> 01:39:48,220
That's the hydrogen that acts as the shield for them.

1258
01:39:49,100 --> 01:39:53,720
But whatever I do, I have to build in air detection and correction because this stuff is going to happen.

1259
01:39:53,720 --> 01:39:56,180
I mean, it's just price of doing business in space.

1260
01:39:56,180 --> 01:40:03,740
So I have to have some quite a bit of software overhead to be constantly checking for these problems because they're just going to happen.

1261
01:40:04,260 --> 01:40:06,800
So the natural environment's bad enough.

1262
01:40:06,800 --> 01:40:10,800
Now I got to worry about the unnatural environment, the human environment.

1263
01:40:10,800 --> 01:40:12,480
And these were the good old days.

1264
01:40:12,480 --> 01:40:23,560
The good old days, we just launched satellites and we talked to them and everybody was cool and everybody was nice to each other and we didn't have to worry and we barely had any software anyway, so it didn't matter.

1265
01:40:24,240 --> 01:40:25,740
And that life was good.

1266
01:40:25,800 --> 01:40:27,780
That ain't the way it is anymore, right?

1267
01:40:27,780 --> 01:40:29,400
Now we have bad actors.

1268
01:40:29,400 --> 01:40:31,600
We're way more dependent on software.

1269
01:40:31,600 --> 01:40:36,440
And these bad actors are doing things like spoofing and eavesdropping and denials of service.

1270
01:40:37,260 --> 01:40:40,740
All of these are things that we now have to be concerned about.

1271
01:40:41,080 --> 01:40:43,940
But we're not really prepared in the space industry.

1272
01:40:43,940 --> 01:40:46,120
So we have some challenges in our industry.

1273
01:40:46,120 --> 01:40:55,660
First of all, as we've just seen, some of the problems that can happen in spacecraft are hard to distinguish between a natural problem and an unnatural problem.

1274
01:40:55,660 --> 01:41:03,900
If I have a single event upset, it may not immediately be obvious that that's, you know, because of the natural environment or because somebody hacked me.

1275
01:41:04,600 --> 01:41:14,260
Also, space has suffered from a bit of, you know, it-can't-happen-here mentality, you know, where you tend to think we're, you know, nobody's going to bug us, but, you know, we're special.

1276
01:41:14,260 --> 01:41:16,260
But of course, we're not that special.

1277
01:41:17,080 --> 01:41:24,800
And space has tended to be fairly conservative and flexible and very non-agile in terms of adapting over time.

1278
01:41:24,800 --> 01:41:26,520
A bit complacent, we could say.

1279
01:41:26,520 --> 01:41:30,300
And we tended to view security as more of an afterthought than a forethought.

1280
01:41:31,240 --> 01:41:33,960
And part of it is because fixing things is difficult.

1281
01:41:33,960 --> 01:41:35,580
We can patch our systems.

1282
01:41:35,580 --> 01:41:38,240
We can even do, you know, new software updates.

1283
01:41:38,240 --> 01:41:39,520
But we're limited.

1284
01:41:39,620 --> 01:41:41,760
Basically, we can't change our hardware.

1285
01:41:41,940 --> 01:41:44,920
And we're limited in the ability of what we can do even to our software.

1286
01:41:44,920 --> 01:41:48,080
So we just can't react that fast.

1287
01:41:48,300 --> 01:41:52,420
The other issue is that the, you know, the attack surface just keeps growing.

1288
01:41:52,420 --> 01:41:54,320
We're relying more and more on software.

1289
01:41:54,320 --> 01:41:56,960
We have more and more distributed missions.

1290
01:41:56,960 --> 01:41:58,900
We have a lot more actors involved.

1291
01:41:58,900 --> 01:42:07,340
We have... our software tends to be more outdated, because we in the space business tend to build missions that last sometimes for decades.

1292
01:42:07,440 --> 01:42:11,440
And so we're still using software from, you know, that nobody else has even heard of.

1293
01:42:11,740 --> 01:42:16,580
And then we have trouble, you know, removing that software at end-of-life kind of problems.

1294
01:42:17,180 --> 01:42:19,340
So that's the space environment issues.

1295
01:42:19,340 --> 01:42:20,880
Again, space isn't that far away.

1296
01:42:20,880 --> 01:42:24,200
We have a number of natural environment things we have to contend with.

1297
01:42:24,200 --> 01:42:33,720
Big one from upsetting spacecraft standpoint are the high energy charge particles, which will cause a single event upsets and bit flips and things.

1298
01:42:34,480 --> 01:42:40,040
And from a cyber's perspective, what I want you to take away here that, first of all, again, space is hard.

1299
01:42:40,040 --> 01:42:42,020
And space sucks because it's vacuum.

1300
01:42:42,120 --> 01:42:48,340
So it's hard enough to get things to work in space, you know, even on a good day, because that natural environment is a pretty big threat.

1301
01:42:48,340 --> 01:42:53,980
And it's causing denial of service randomly already, you know, without any human intervention.

1302
01:42:54,560 --> 01:43:06,480
And some of those anomalies that could occur if, you know, if there was a nefarious actor, we'd have a hard time immediately discerning the difference between a natural attack and an unnatural attack.

1303
01:43:07,140 --> 01:43:22,640
And the other thing to take away is just how fragile spacecraft are, you know, relatively minor hack, like, you know, causing a solar array not to point quite at the sun, even if it was off by a few degrees, would decrease the amount of power it could produce,

1304
01:43:22,640 --> 01:43:28,160
which might decrease its ability to do its mission, and on any number of things from a relatively smart area.

1305
01:43:29,980 --> 01:43:37,520
So Gretchen's asking a question here, in the vein of threats, human actions, there are so many vulnerabilities to ground system, the support space that can be attacked.

1306
01:43:37,520 --> 01:43:41,260
What would cybersecurity hack look like in the ground infrastructure?

1307
01:43:41,420 --> 01:43:42,440
What would they get?

1308
01:43:42,440 --> 01:43:44,640
And how could you protect against it?

1309
01:43:44,940 --> 01:43:47,960
We're going to tackle some more of that here in a minute.

1310
01:43:48,020 --> 01:43:49,900
Gretchen, thanks for that question.

1311
01:43:49,900 --> 01:44:03,440
But we're, as we saw in that previous section, there's, I listed nine different activities for mission operations, and any one of those activities is a potential inroads for an attack.

1312
01:44:04,160 --> 01:44:10,400
And that, in terms of that, and because they all represent parts of the ground infrastructure as well.

1313
01:44:10,400 --> 01:44:19,220
And, you know, some of them more vulnerable than others, but any one of those are potential inroads, because you have people, processes, and things involved.

1314
01:44:19,220 --> 01:44:34,220
And people can be a weak area there, and sometimes just the infrastructure we have, because it's maybe antiquated or doesn't have the, you know, and we're running, you know, legacy software from decades ago, we have more vulnerabilities in that respect.

1315
01:44:34,220 --> 01:44:37,020
So hopefully that answered your question.

1316
01:44:37,780 --> 01:44:40,020
So let's check in.

1317
01:44:40,020 --> 01:44:47,000
Any other questions from that section before I pop up the poll?

1318
01:44:48,560 --> 01:44:52,940
So who still wants to be an astronaut after seeing the threats?

1319
01:44:56,790 --> 01:44:58,550
Who's changed their mind?

1320
01:44:58,610 --> 01:45:00,310
Oh, Pete, you're still ready to go.

1321
01:45:00,310 --> 01:45:00,870
Okay.

1322
01:45:00,990 --> 01:45:02,270
Wear your lead underwear.

1323
01:45:02,270 --> 01:45:05,390
Oh, wait, I guess you better wear your hydrogen underwear.

1324
01:45:06,870 --> 01:45:09,090
Take a visit over an extended stay.

1325
01:45:09,370 --> 01:45:09,950
Kilt.

1326
01:45:09,950 --> 01:45:13,250
Okay, you're, yeah, that'll help you.

1327
01:45:13,390 --> 01:45:23,050
So astronauts will tell you, because we didn't really talk about human issues, but I mean, it's scary to talk about what happens to humans, especially in the free fall environment.

1328
01:45:23,050 --> 01:45:25,370
That's, that's, that can be pretty bad.

1329
01:45:25,370 --> 01:45:29,190
The astronauts will tell you they'll see flashes of light in their eyes.

1330
01:45:29,190 --> 01:45:37,050
So a charged particle goes through the eyeball, releases a photon, your retina can detect a single photon.

1331
01:45:37,050 --> 01:45:43,310
And they see these little light bulbs going off in their eyes at random times, which is a bit of a freak out.

1332
01:45:44,450 --> 01:45:46,670
So that's, that's an issue.

1333
01:45:46,670 --> 01:45:48,290
We talked about shielding.

1334
01:45:49,210 --> 01:45:54,430
The, the, again, for human missions, we can use water.

1335
01:45:54,430 --> 01:46:02,250
In fact, NASA talks about using, creating like a storm shelter because these big solar particle events luckily don't last that long, you know, days.

1336
01:46:02,250 --> 01:46:08,810
So if you can get astronauts to hunker down underneath bags of water for a couple of days, they'd probably be okay.

1337
01:46:08,810 --> 01:46:18,370
But the radiation effects on humans is pretty, pretty critical to look at because a round trip mission to Mars is a, is a lifetime dosage.

1338
01:46:18,390 --> 01:46:21,950
NASA sets the dosage limits based on age and gender.

1339
01:46:22,470 --> 01:46:27,890
Women can take less dosage than men and older people can take more dosage than younger people.

1340
01:46:27,890 --> 01:46:33,290
So of course, the answer for going to Mars is to send old men because you won't miss us anyway.

1341
01:46:33,490 --> 01:46:36,850
And then you could argue about whether you should even bring us back.

1342
01:46:36,850 --> 01:46:40,650
So in terms of a safety issue, but there you go.

1343
01:46:41,590 --> 01:46:42,350
Yeah.

1344
01:46:42,350 --> 01:46:47,230
And so Terry's talking, she, Terry, you want to say something about that JPL thing?

1345
01:46:48,950 --> 01:46:49,790
Yeah, sure.

1346
01:46:49,790 --> 01:47:04,690
So a couple of years ago, JPL was hacked and they were hacked because there was a, an unattended, unauthorized little Raspberry Pi, just a simple little computer hooked up to their network.

1347
01:47:04,690 --> 01:47:20,530
And so an external threat actor got in, actually came in through that Raspberry Pi or targeted it, was able to crawl around their network for about 10 months and, and received about 500 meg of data about one of the Mars missions.

1348
01:47:20,530 --> 01:47:27,930
So that's just an example where, you know, you've really got to watch the people in your network and what they are putting on your network.

1349
01:47:28,710 --> 01:47:29,230
Yeah.

1350
01:47:29,230 --> 01:47:36,470
And I guess be conscious that, you know, all it takes is one slip up and somebody's just waiting for that slip up, you know, in that case.

1351
01:47:36,730 --> 01:47:38,770
You talk about gravity effects on humans.

1352
01:47:38,770 --> 01:47:45,170
So quickly, there's three things with gravity effects on humans, moans, groans, and stones.

1353
01:47:45,210 --> 01:47:53,730
So the moans come from vestibular issues where you just are space sick and you feel like crap because you're, you're just, you know, motion sick.

1354
01:47:53,970 --> 01:48:02,150
Bones comes from a lack of, you know, you know, force on your, on your bones, so your bones lose, lose, lose mass.

1355
01:48:02,290 --> 01:48:11,910
And, and then stones come from a fluid shift because you get fluid that moves to your upper body because your, your legs keep pushing fluid into your upper body, even though it doesn't need to.

1356
01:48:11,910 --> 01:48:18,450
And you're, and you, you start offloading liquid, which means you're going to be dehydrated, which can lead to kidney stones.

1357
01:48:18,450 --> 01:48:21,670
So all of that are issues with gravitational effects.

1358
01:48:21,730 --> 01:48:34,070
Building rotating space stations would be cool, but the, you know, you look at the mass of the entire International Space Station, you'd need a couple times more of that mass to build something even close to big enough to be useful.

1359
01:48:34,070 --> 01:48:39,130
Because if it's a relatively small radius, people would just throw up if they're going around in circles like that.

1360
01:48:39,130 --> 01:48:40,770
So you need a pretty big radius.

1361
01:48:40,770 --> 01:48:42,690
And I can't remember what the minimum radius is.

1362
01:48:42,690 --> 01:48:44,150
Somebody's studied that.

1363
01:48:44,150 --> 01:48:55,410
But it's, it's like 50 meters or at least before otherwise you just you the Coriolis would give you all kinds of vestibular issues.

1364
01:48:55,410 --> 01:48:57,270
So it needs to be a pretty big thing.

1365
01:48:57,270 --> 01:49:00,970
So now we're not quite ready to build something that big yet.

1366
01:49:00,970 --> 01:49:02,470
That'd be nice though.

1367
01:49:02,950 --> 01:49:04,870
All right, let me release the pole.

1368
01:49:05,510 --> 01:49:07,290
Release the hounds.

1369
01:49:07,930 --> 01:49:09,730
Release the pole.

1370
01:49:09,730 --> 01:49:11,850
So we just did threats.

1371
01:49:15,680 --> 01:49:17,820
So let's go ahead and take this poll.

1372
01:49:17,900 --> 01:49:22,560
And then we'll give you about five minutes or so to take the poll.

1373
01:49:22,560 --> 01:49:25,940
Then we'll review that we got time for a little stretch break.

1374
01:49:25,940 --> 01:49:29,760
And then we'll start back up at the at the bottom of the hour.

1375
01:49:29,760 --> 01:49:33,520
So that should be 4.30 pacific time.

1376
01:49:34,060 --> 01:49:37,260
And all right.

1377
01:49:37,260 --> 01:49:37,800
Yeah.

1378
01:49:38,800 --> 01:49:41,240
And then so I guess my little has scheduled.

1379
01:49:41,240 --> 01:49:42,200
That's good.

1380
01:49:43,440 --> 01:49:47,180
So we'll start back up at 4.30 pacific time.

1381
01:49:47,180 --> 01:49:50,160
And then we'll pick up with vulnerabilities there in a minute.

1382
01:49:50,160 --> 01:49:51,680
So go ahead and take the poll.

1383
01:49:51,720 --> 01:49:54,220
And then we'll check in and see how everybody did with that.

1384
01:53:47,900 --> 01:53:49,840
All right, let's see how we did here.

1385
01:53:50,180 --> 01:53:54,720
So we have results.

1386
01:53:56,540 --> 01:53:58,420
So first question.

1387
01:53:59,080 --> 01:54:02,660
Space is incredibly, amazingly, ridiculously far, far away.

1388
01:54:04,700 --> 01:54:06,260
Nope, pretty close, right?

1389
01:54:06,260 --> 01:54:07,300
100 kilometers.

1390
01:54:07,840 --> 01:54:09,920
Drag affects all satellites in every orbit.

1391
01:54:13,020 --> 01:54:14,820
I guess you missed that one.

1392
01:54:14,820 --> 01:54:17,360
So no, right?

1393
01:54:17,360 --> 01:54:21,800
Remember we said 600 kilometers was under the rule of thumb there.

1394
01:54:21,800 --> 01:54:25,140
So we're above 600, then I don't need to worry about drag.

1395
01:54:25,980 --> 01:54:28,280
Below 600, then yeah, I do need to worry about drag.

1396
01:54:28,280 --> 01:54:31,060
So maybe I misspoke there and confused you on that one.

1397
01:54:31,060 --> 01:54:35,600
So I said, yeah, there's atmosphere all the way up to the moon, but not enough to worry about.

1398
01:54:36,120 --> 01:54:42,000
But the 600 kilometers is sort of the line in the sand there for us.

1399
01:54:42,300 --> 01:54:47,660
So those bit flips are caused by the high energy charged particles are pretty pretty much got that one.

1400
01:54:48,040 --> 01:54:55,840
And yeah, the scary thing here is anomalous behavior by satellite could be indistinguishable from a natural threat.

1401
01:54:55,840 --> 01:54:58,380
So it's really hard to know right at first.

1402
01:54:58,380 --> 01:55:04,740
And then all of the above represent the cybersecurity challenges that we talked about.

1403
01:55:04,740 --> 01:55:14,740
And then key things there for denial of service was the TOS flood, the Internet of Things botnet attack, and then ping flood type issues.

1404
01:55:14,740 --> 01:55:17,120
So most of you did okay on there.

1405
01:55:17,300 --> 01:55:18,340
All right.

1406
01:55:18,340 --> 01:55:20,760
So let me stop sharing that.

1407
01:55:22,260 --> 01:55:24,920
So let's move to our last section.

1408
01:55:24,920 --> 01:55:31,520
And then you want to stay tuned because we're going to have our little cybersecurity challenge here at the end to see how you do.

1409
01:55:31,680 --> 01:55:39,020
So here we want to look at some specific areas of vulnerability, the RF systems and data handling systems.

1410
01:55:39,320 --> 01:55:44,800
So we're going to look at those pipes and those uplink and downlink pipes that we talked about.

1411
01:55:44,880 --> 01:55:47,480
We want to know how those pipes work.

1412
01:55:47,480 --> 01:55:49,040
How do I set up a pipe?

1413
01:55:49,040 --> 01:55:52,560
And that means how do I maybe disrupt the pipe as well?

1414
01:55:52,560 --> 01:55:55,160
So these pipes are fine-tuned things.

1415
01:55:55,160 --> 01:55:58,780
We need to make sure that they work correctly because it's all about moving the data.

1416
01:55:58,860 --> 01:56:00,720
And then we'll look at the data handling system.

1417
01:56:00,720 --> 01:56:05,740
So I've got my little cartoon there of a computer and we've got some ones and zeros there.

1418
01:56:05,740 --> 01:56:10,260
If you stare carefully there, you see that my artist put a two in there.

1419
01:56:10,260 --> 01:56:13,060
So I guess that's a bit flip when that happened.

1420
01:56:14,040 --> 01:56:16,380
So let's start with a communication system.

1421
01:56:16,380 --> 01:56:19,440
So this is the ears and the mouth of our spacecraft.

1422
01:56:19,440 --> 01:56:26,280
So we have to listen for commands coming up from the ground and we have to talk to send telemetry down to the ground.

1423
01:56:26,880 --> 01:56:33,880
Along the way, we have to turn that data into modulated information that goes on to the carriers we'll talk about.

1424
01:56:33,880 --> 01:56:42,240
So we have modulators and demodulators that work with that carrier signal that we'll look at to actually move that data from where it needs to go.

1425
01:56:42,240 --> 01:56:47,400
And then that data then connects up to the data handling system as we'll see here in a little bit.

1426
01:56:48,080 --> 01:56:52,280
So the key part here is these communication architectures.

1427
01:56:52,280 --> 01:56:54,600
So again, it's all about moving the data.

1428
01:56:54,600 --> 01:56:56,640
So I have ground systems all over the place.

1429
01:56:56,640 --> 01:57:02,940
I showed you those Air Force Satellite Control Network and Deep Space Network and that Universal Space Network.

1430
01:57:02,940 --> 01:57:08,420
We have these ground stations all over the darn place and we're moving data all over between them.

1431
01:57:08,420 --> 01:57:12,940
Now, space to space and ground to space, downlinks are going to be RF.

1432
01:57:13,020 --> 01:57:17,620
And once it's on the ground, then we can move things around through fiber.

1433
01:57:17,720 --> 01:57:21,320
Fiber is actually a lot better than RF for a whole lot of reasons.

1434
01:57:21,800 --> 01:57:26,680
But for space, ain't no fiber up to the space, at least yet, until we can build that space elevator.

1435
01:57:26,820 --> 01:57:28,700
We're kind of stuck with RF links.

1436
01:57:28,700 --> 01:57:33,880
And so that they create their own challenges and vulnerabilities as we're going to see.

1437
01:57:34,780 --> 01:57:40,480
So let's talk about how RF communication works, which means we have to talk about how communication works.

1438
01:57:41,160 --> 01:57:45,140
And I'm sure everybody, when they were a kid, got to play with two cans and a string.

1439
01:57:45,760 --> 01:57:50,000
And kind of unlike the cartoon in the top, the string needs to be tight.

1440
01:57:50,000 --> 01:57:55,820
So our scientists, they're not holding the string tight the way they need to, but for, you know, artistic license there.

1441
01:57:55,900 --> 01:58:08,660
So the guy on the right is going to talk into his cup and that's going to, his voice is going to bounce on the bottom of the can and his voice will then get modulated onto the string.

1442
01:58:08,660 --> 01:58:24,280
Now the string is going to carry that vibration to the other person who's got the cup up to her ear, and it's going to bounce on the bottom of her cup, where it'll be demodulated, and then she's going to hear kind of whatever it was that he said.

1443
01:58:24,280 --> 01:58:24,840
Okay.

1444
01:58:25,160 --> 01:58:28,880
So RF communication, the only difference is no string.

1445
01:58:28,880 --> 01:58:36,760
In fact, it's really, it's the carrier that acts as the string, as the carrier is where we're going to modulate our information onto.

1446
01:58:36,980 --> 01:58:38,360
But we have to have that carrier.

1447
01:58:38,360 --> 01:58:43,680
So we have to have that string that goes from me to you, and that's how we're going to get our information there.

1448
01:58:43,720 --> 01:58:49,540
Now it turns out there's various ways to modulate that information onto the carrier.

1449
01:58:49,540 --> 01:59:01,860
In the space business, we tend to use digital communication, and there's three basic ways you can think of to do modulation, two of which you have in your car, amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.

1450
01:59:01,860 --> 01:59:10,420
So our cartoon there shows a simple example of amplitude modulation, where low amplitude means a zero, and higher amplitude means a one.

1451
01:59:10,420 --> 01:59:16,420
I could do frequency modulation, so every time I shifted frequency, that could be a zero or a one.

1452
01:59:16,420 --> 01:59:23,800
In the space business, we tend to use phase modulation, where every time we swap phase, we can go between a zero and a one.

1453
01:59:24,020 --> 01:59:27,820
So, you know, kind of pick your language, really.

1454
01:59:27,960 --> 01:59:38,240
It turns in space, it turns out that phase modulation is a little more forgiving, so we tend to use that more in space, but there's, we could use the others if we wanted to, we just don't, they don't work as well.

1455
01:59:38,540 --> 01:59:42,260
But for, you know, for your car, it's fine, you know, we're fine.

1456
01:59:42,340 --> 01:59:44,480
So various ways to do that.

1457
01:59:44,800 --> 01:59:52,740
Now, what we're trying to make sure happens is that we can have a conversation, right, between the spacecraft and the ground, they need to have a conversation.

1458
01:59:52,740 --> 02:00:02,620
And that conversation is no different from what you, the conversation you want to have with your buddies when you're out, you know, out at the restaurant or bar at night, back when we could go to restaurants and bars.

1459
02:00:03,320 --> 02:00:10,680
Well, I'm sure most of you remember being in a bar at one time in your life, and you're trying to have a conversation with somebody on the other side.

1460
02:00:10,740 --> 02:00:14,020
And there's a lot of things that we're going to complicate that.

1461
02:00:14,160 --> 02:00:20,360
First of all, you and your, whoever you're talking to, is helpful if you're speaking the same language, right?

1462
02:00:20,360 --> 02:00:25,560
If you're trying to speak to someone in a language they don't understand, it doesn't matter how loud you talk.

1463
02:00:25,560 --> 02:00:31,640
Most, well, of course, Americans know that if you talk English loud enough, anywhere on earth, people will understand you.

1464
02:00:31,640 --> 02:00:33,320
But that's not usually the case.

1465
02:00:33,360 --> 02:00:36,800
So we need to make sure we pick the right language.

1466
02:00:36,940 --> 02:00:39,320
And we also need to be on the right frequency.

1467
02:00:39,320 --> 02:00:44,220
You know, so if I'm, if I'm using, you know, dog whistle frequency, you're not going to hear me, right?

1468
02:00:44,220 --> 02:00:47,560
So we, you know, let's pick with audio frequencies here.

1469
02:00:47,940 --> 02:00:49,020
Distance is important.

1470
02:00:49,020 --> 02:00:51,740
If I'm too far away, you can't hear me.

1471
02:00:51,740 --> 02:00:53,260
And data rate is important.

1472
02:00:53,260 --> 02:00:57,180
If I talk too quickly, you can't really understand me.

1473
02:00:57,180 --> 02:00:59,460
You might hear me, but you won't really understand me.

1474
02:00:59,460 --> 02:01:01,240
So I have those things to play with.

1475
02:01:01,240 --> 02:01:04,480
Language, frequency, distance, data rate, and then environment.

1476
02:01:04,480 --> 02:01:09,620
So if somebody's making a lot of noise, then I'm not going to be able to hear what the other person's saying either.

1477
02:01:09,620 --> 02:01:13,820
So all those things have to be balanced to make sure we have effective communication.

1478
02:01:14,000 --> 02:01:18,580
And what we're really after here is making sure that the signal is greater than the noise.

1479
02:01:18,580 --> 02:01:21,620
If the signal is higher than the noise, then you're probably going to hear me.

1480
02:01:21,620 --> 02:01:25,340
If the noise is greater than the signal, then you're probably not going to hear me.

1481
02:01:26,500 --> 02:01:34,840
And this gets tied up into what we call Fry's equation, which is for how we calculate link budgets on all of these various links I just showed you.

1482
02:01:34,840 --> 02:01:41,820
So it looks like a little complicated equation, but it's really not that bad, because what it's really doing is implementing the things that we just talked about.

1483
02:01:41,820 --> 02:01:49,440
So instead of being in a bar having a conversation, now I'm having a conversation between two dishes, as we show there on the bottom right.

1484
02:01:49,620 --> 02:01:51,540
And so the same things apply.

1485
02:01:51,540 --> 02:01:55,620
I have to pick the right frequency, in this case the frequency of our carrier wave.

1486
02:01:55,620 --> 02:01:58,560
I have to pick the right language, which is the modulation.

1487
02:01:58,780 --> 02:02:01,840
I'm worried about distance, which we call space loss.

1488
02:02:01,840 --> 02:02:03,680
I'm worried about the data rate.

1489
02:02:03,700 --> 02:02:05,080
And I'm worried about noise.

1490
02:02:05,840 --> 02:02:07,900
So all of those are things I have to consider.

1491
02:02:07,900 --> 02:02:10,800
And they're all packed into that equation there at the top.

1492
02:02:10,800 --> 02:02:17,320
Because what we're trying to do is ensure that for every bit, the energy is greater than the noise.

1493
02:02:17,320 --> 02:02:21,080
So we call energy per bit to noise ratio, or EB over NO.

1494
02:02:21,100 --> 02:02:24,900
So energy per bit to noise ratio wants to be greater than one.

1495
02:02:25,120 --> 02:02:27,820
And that's going to be determined by a number of things.

1496
02:02:27,820 --> 02:02:29,780
I have only a number of things I can play with.

1497
02:02:29,880 --> 02:02:32,800
Transmitter power, basically how loud I'm going to talk.

1498
02:02:32,800 --> 02:02:37,400
Transmitter gain, how I maybe direct what I say.

1499
02:02:37,980 --> 02:02:40,480
The space loss, how close I am.

1500
02:02:40,480 --> 02:02:44,080
The receiver antenna gain, how big the ears are on the ground.

1501
02:02:44,080 --> 02:02:45,620
And the data rate.

1502
02:02:45,700 --> 02:02:49,420
The lower the data rate, the easier it is to get the message through.

1503
02:02:49,440 --> 02:02:52,780
So there are not that many knobs I can turn here.

1504
02:02:52,780 --> 02:02:58,080
But these are the things that I have to have all in place to make sure I have effective communication.

1505
02:02:58,080 --> 02:03:05,280
So if I were to impact any one of these in some negative way, I'm going to reduce my ability to communicate significantly.

1506
02:03:05,520 --> 02:03:08,900
And we see that already with things like Voyager.

1507
02:03:08,900 --> 02:03:12,560
So Voyager keeps going and going and going.

1508
02:03:12,640 --> 02:03:13,920
Energizer bunny, right?

1509
02:03:14,000 --> 02:03:21,100
Eventually the power on its radioisotope thermoelectric generator is going to give out, I think, in about 20 years, they said.

1510
02:03:21,920 --> 02:03:27,620
But even now, it's so far away, the space losses are basically killing our ability to hear it.

1511
02:03:27,620 --> 02:03:31,600
In fact, I don't think we're going to be able to hear it in about another five or 10 years.

1512
02:03:31,700 --> 02:03:33,920
Already, its signal is below the noise.

1513
02:03:33,920 --> 02:03:39,640
And it has to keep repeating itself over and over and over before we can finally pick the signal out of the noise.

1514
02:03:39,880 --> 02:03:43,800
But for something in low Earth orbit, we can't have it just keep repeating itself.

1515
02:03:43,800 --> 02:03:46,100
We want to hear it the first time if we can.

1516
02:03:46,240 --> 02:03:48,580
So these are challenges that we have to face.

1517
02:03:48,760 --> 02:03:54,400
And the other challenges have to do with the limitations that we have for building up these links.

1518
02:03:54,400 --> 02:03:57,980
We have some physical limits that have to do with the atmosphere.

1519
02:03:58,180 --> 02:04:06,740
So certain frequencies are going to get attenuated by the atmosphere, especially some of the higher frequencies that don't like going through rain very well.

1520
02:04:06,980 --> 02:04:12,280
There's some technical limits in terms of just how big of an antenna you can put on a satellite.

1521
02:04:12,280 --> 02:04:17,340
But the biggest antennas flying right now are about 15 meters.

1522
02:04:18,360 --> 02:04:23,620
It's just hard to put in and that has to fold up like an origami and then unfold.

1523
02:04:24,280 --> 02:04:31,040
The Galileo spacecraft we show there in the illustration at the top, they went to Jupiter back in the 90s.

1524
02:04:31,200 --> 02:04:38,040
It had this high gain antenna that was supposed to unfurl like an umbrella, but two of the ribs got stuck together.

1525
02:04:38,040 --> 02:04:39,520
They think it was cold welding.

1526
02:04:39,520 --> 02:04:41,980
So they could never unfurl that high gain antenna.

1527
02:04:41,980 --> 02:04:53,360
So they had to run the whole mission on the low gain antenna, which they lost something like an order or two orders of magnitude less data rate to be able to run the mission, which is problematic.

1528
02:04:53,380 --> 02:05:01,900
So just by affecting that one thing, you've impacted the mission greatly in terms of its ability to move data.

1529
02:05:02,740 --> 02:05:05,560
And of course, there's other technical limits to consider as well.

1530
02:05:05,760 --> 02:05:08,600
I can only generate so much power on board.

1531
02:05:08,900 --> 02:05:12,500
And a lot of the stuff on the ground are already built.

1532
02:05:12,500 --> 02:05:14,220
The frequencies are already established.

1533
02:05:14,220 --> 02:05:17,100
So there's just limits to what I can do.

1534
02:05:17,100 --> 02:05:19,260
And then of course, there's legal limits.

1535
02:05:19,400 --> 02:05:26,760
You can't just wake up tomorrow and decide you're going to start your own radio station, the FCC is going to come shut you down.

1536
02:05:26,780 --> 02:05:35,980
And the same goes in space, you can't simply launch a satellite and start broadcasting willy nilly and whatever frequency you want, you have to get approval to use that.

1537
02:05:35,980 --> 02:05:40,180
And the approval comes from through the International Telecommunications Union.

1538
02:05:40,180 --> 02:05:43,380
And that's fairly highly regulated, which is a good thing.

1539
02:05:43,380 --> 02:05:45,240
Otherwise, it'd be chaos up there.

1540
02:05:45,900 --> 02:05:55,660
So even though you might want to do certain things, if you don't have the frequency allocation, you're going to be out of luck in terms of what you can actually do.

1541
02:05:58,640 --> 02:06:05,640
So the trade space then here ends up being, what can I do to affect my EV over NO?

1542
02:06:05,640 --> 02:06:10,380
How can I make sure that when I talk, people can hear me and understand me?

1543
02:06:10,380 --> 02:06:11,140
Well, what can I do?

1544
02:06:11,140 --> 02:06:12,860
Well, I can talk louder, right?

1545
02:06:12,860 --> 02:06:15,660
I can get more power out of my spacecraft.

1546
02:06:16,180 --> 02:06:21,540
But there's going to be a limit, and there's only so much power I have available from my solar panels.

1547
02:06:21,580 --> 02:06:23,520
I can get a bigger megaphone, right?

1548
02:06:23,520 --> 02:06:27,700
But again, I can only put so big of an antenna on my spacecraft.

1549
02:06:27,960 --> 02:06:32,280
I can try to get closer, but hey, if I'm Voyager, I'm leaving the solar system, man.

1550
02:06:32,280 --> 02:06:33,720
That's not an option.

1551
02:06:33,920 --> 02:06:36,660
I can try to get bigger ears on the ground.

1552
02:06:37,060 --> 02:06:39,440
But most of our ground stations are already fixed.

1553
02:06:39,440 --> 02:06:42,000
They represent billions of dollars of investment.

1554
02:06:42,000 --> 02:06:45,220
I'm probably not going to simply go build new ones necessarily.

1555
02:06:45,220 --> 02:06:47,480
I can try to talk slower.

1556
02:06:47,660 --> 02:06:52,080
That'll make it easier, but then I'm going to take longer to get the same information to the ground.

1557
02:06:52,080 --> 02:06:55,040
That means it's going to take more passes to do that.

1558
02:06:55,040 --> 02:07:02,020
I can try to reduce the noise in the environment, but there's a limit to what I can do there, especially for existing systems.

1559
02:07:02,040 --> 02:07:07,280
And I try to move to higher frequencies, but that means new technologies often.

1560
02:07:07,340 --> 02:07:17,160
We're getting a crowding right now because a lot of the frequencies that space has traditionally used are starting to get more terrestrial applications as well.

1561
02:07:17,160 --> 02:07:30,240
And when there's a contest between space application and terrestrial applications, terrestrial tends to win, which means space is getting crowded out of its traditional S-band, C-band frequencies.

1562
02:07:30,240 --> 02:07:43,560
In fact, there's a slew of satellite orders just came in this year because they're trying to provide better utilization for some of the C-band frequencies that are available, which is good news to people building satellites.

1563
02:07:44,420 --> 02:07:54,400
So there's a push to move space to higher frequencies, which is good for a lot of reasons, but bad because we don't necessarily have all the infrastructure in place.

1564
02:07:54,400 --> 02:07:59,500
It's going to represent some big investment to start moving your frequencies around.

1565
02:07:59,900 --> 02:08:05,620
So those are issues we have to think about when it comes to these things.

1566
02:08:07,240 --> 02:08:11,420
So those are the key issues with communication.

1567
02:08:11,420 --> 02:08:15,960
So again, I wanted you to understand fundamentally how communication works.

1568
02:08:16,480 --> 02:08:27,740
We've got the two cans in the string, we've got our carrier, and here we have our carrier wave, which is some frequency that's been allocated to us, and then we're going to modulate our information on top of that.

1569
02:08:27,980 --> 02:08:33,700
When we talk, we want people to hear us, which means we need the energy per bit to be greater than the noise.

1570
02:08:33,700 --> 02:08:43,980
So that means I only have so many things I can play with there in terms of how loud I talk, how big my antenna is, distance, frequency, language, speed, environment.

1571
02:08:44,780 --> 02:08:54,580
And then we have some limitations we have to deal with, physical, technical, legal, and a number of trade-offs then that impact what we can and can't do with that.

1572
02:08:54,640 --> 02:08:56,260
Any questions on RF?

1573
02:08:56,260 --> 02:09:11,660
So you just got about a semester course on RF communication in 15 minutes or so, but I want to make sure you understand where the... because it's fairly technical, but it's a technical because it really impacts what you can and can't do.

1574
02:09:11,660 --> 02:09:20,620
A lot of it's physics and technology, so we have to be aware of what those limitations are, both from a security standpoint and a vulnerability standpoint.

1575
02:09:20,880 --> 02:09:22,800
Any questions on any of that?

1576
02:09:24,120 --> 02:09:26,700
How's my EB over NO coming through?

1577
02:09:30,020 --> 02:09:31,520
So far so good?

1578
02:09:34,320 --> 02:09:35,680
Nancy, can you hear me?

1579
02:09:35,680 --> 02:09:36,560
All good?

1580
02:09:38,660 --> 02:09:39,760
All good.

1581
02:09:39,760 --> 02:09:40,540
Loud and clear.

1582
02:09:40,540 --> 02:09:40,560
All right.

1583
02:09:40,560 --> 02:09:42,180
Everything sounds great so far, yeah.

1584
02:09:42,540 --> 02:09:45,620
Should say 3 dB, that would be good.

1585
02:09:46,440 --> 02:09:48,680
So, all right.

1586
02:09:48,680 --> 02:09:52,620
Well, let's look then at what's happening in the data handling system.

1587
02:09:52,620 --> 02:09:56,800
So the data handling system now is really our brains of our spacecraft.

1588
02:09:56,800 --> 02:09:59,200
So it's doing all the thinking for us.

1589
02:09:59,320 --> 02:10:01,280
And so it's got a lot to do, right?

1590
02:10:01,280 --> 02:10:04,200
If you think of it as a to-do list, it's a long to-do list.

1591
02:10:04,200 --> 02:10:06,300
It's got to respond to commands from the ground.

1592
02:10:06,300 --> 02:10:11,980
It's got to come up with telemetry from the health and status as well as the payload.

1593
02:10:12,280 --> 02:10:18,840
It's got to boot up on its own and self-test, and it has to fix errors if it finds them.

1594
02:10:18,840 --> 02:10:21,220
And it has to control everything on the satellite.

1595
02:10:21,220 --> 02:10:22,040
It has to control the heat.

1596
02:10:22,040 --> 02:10:23,400
It has to control power.

1597
02:10:23,400 --> 02:10:24,800
It has to control the pointing.

1598
02:10:24,800 --> 02:10:26,380
It has to control rockets.

1599
02:10:26,520 --> 02:10:29,880
All that stuff has to happen on board that.

1600
02:10:29,900 --> 02:10:32,880
And it has to be ready to be updated.

1601
02:10:32,880 --> 02:10:38,280
So over-the-air updates, kind of like a Tesla, it's got to be ready for over-the-air updates whenever they're ready.

1602
02:10:38,400 --> 02:10:39,800
And that could be patches.

1603
02:10:39,800 --> 02:10:43,340
It could be complete software updates over the life of the mission.

1604
02:10:43,340 --> 02:10:45,080
So that's a lot.

1605
02:10:45,080 --> 02:10:51,080
On top of that, it's got to do it in the space environment when we just talked about how nasty that place is.

1606
02:10:51,080 --> 02:10:54,320
So I have to deal with all that on top of everything else.

1607
02:10:54,320 --> 02:10:58,900
So it makes this data handling problem pretty difficult.

1608
02:10:59,380 --> 02:11:08,540
So that brains of the operation then is tightly coupled to the communication system because it doesn't do me any good to handle data if I can't communicate it.

1609
02:11:08,540 --> 02:11:12,100
So sometimes it'll be called the command and data handling system.

1610
02:11:12,100 --> 02:11:14,900
Sometimes the communication data handling system.

1611
02:11:14,900 --> 02:11:17,560
Depends on who you talk to and which organization they're in.

1612
02:11:17,560 --> 02:11:19,680
But it's all about moving the data.

1613
02:11:19,680 --> 02:11:22,080
So I can't communicate the data if I can't handle it.

1614
02:11:22,080 --> 02:11:24,260
And just because I handle it, I still need to communicate it.

1615
02:11:24,260 --> 02:11:26,420
So all pretty much goes together.

1616
02:11:27,200 --> 02:11:28,320
So what's in there?

1617
02:11:28,320 --> 02:11:30,560
So let's look under the hood here and see what's there.

1618
02:11:30,560 --> 02:11:33,900
And not too surprisingly, we're basically talking about a computer , right?

1619
02:11:33,900 --> 02:11:35,080
So what's in there?

1620
02:11:35,080 --> 02:11:40,740
Well, we've got some sort of central processing unit, probably multiple central processing units.

1621
02:11:41,560 --> 02:11:46,560
We have memory, RAM and ROM, pretty much, you know, solid state memory these days.

1622
02:11:46,560 --> 02:11:48,320
Don't fly tape drives anymore.

1623
02:11:48,600 --> 02:11:50,440
And then input output devices.

1624
02:11:50,440 --> 02:11:54,600
So space business tends to lean heavily on standards.

1625
02:11:54,640 --> 02:11:57,820
So there are a number of data bus standards that are fairly common.

1626
02:11:57,820 --> 02:11:59,980
One is called MIL-STD-1553.

1627
02:11:59,980 --> 02:12:01,860
There's another one called SpaceWire.

1628
02:12:02,340 --> 02:12:11,460
And they'll, you know, the 1553, I want to say is what about one to three megabits or something like that data rate, which is fine for most applications on a satellite.

1629
02:12:11,460 --> 02:12:13,720
And people build equipment to that standard.

1630
02:12:13,720 --> 02:12:15,340
So it's easy to get to.

1631
02:12:15,520 --> 02:12:17,840
And then we have a lot of other components too.

1632
02:12:17,840 --> 02:12:22,640
So we have transducers that are measuring stuff all over our spacecraft.

1633
02:12:22,640 --> 02:12:36,540
So whether it's temperature or pressure or whatever, we have transducers that act as analog to digital converters to, you know, turn that analog world into a digital world so that we can do stuff with it.

1634
02:12:36,540 --> 02:12:43,260
We make a lot of use on space systems on field programmable gate arrays, FPGAs.

1635
02:12:43,260 --> 02:12:53,180
There are fairly versatile processor units that you can program in firmware to do any number of things.

1636
02:12:53,180 --> 02:12:59,660
We use them for digital signal processing and other kind of well-defined tasks on board a spacecraft.

1637
02:12:59,660 --> 02:13:03,280
So you'll see a lot of FPGAs show up.

1638
02:13:03,280 --> 02:13:11,040
And then sometimes application-specific integrated circuits that may be a custom circuit that are done for a specific application.

1639
02:13:11,040 --> 02:13:18,920
Again, maybe digital signal processing or maybe some particular payload interaction or something that we're doing.

1640
02:13:19,560 --> 02:13:21,100
That's all the hardware.

1641
02:13:21,100 --> 02:13:23,140
Of course, the hardware is kind of the easy bit.

1642
02:13:23,140 --> 02:13:24,800
And then we get to the software.

1643
02:13:24,800 --> 02:13:27,160
And without software, we got nothing.

1644
02:13:27,160 --> 02:13:28,960
We just got a box of silicon.

1645
02:13:29,020 --> 02:13:31,860
So it's the software that's enabling.

1646
02:13:31,860 --> 02:13:36,400
So we more and more think of spacecraft as a box that flies software.

1647
02:13:37,200 --> 02:13:41,940
We think of software as the complexity sponge for how everything gets done.

1648
02:13:41,940 --> 02:13:52,320
And as you go around the spacecraft and look at every single subsystem, pretty much every subsystem needs some amount of software, some more than others.

1649
02:13:52,320 --> 02:13:55,860
But it's pretty hard to do much of anything without software.

1650
02:13:56,620 --> 02:13:59,400
And software, and that's true across aerospace.

1651
02:13:59,400 --> 02:14:03,420
There was a gentleman giving a talk a number of years ago from Lockheed Martin.

1652
02:14:03,420 --> 02:14:06,280
I think he was a chief technology officer, chief scientist.

1653
02:14:06,280 --> 02:14:07,820
And he was talking about that.

1654
02:14:07,820 --> 02:14:09,400
I think he was talking about the F-22.

1655
02:14:09,860 --> 02:14:17,340
And he said that half the cost of the F-22 was in testing, and half of that was in software.

1656
02:14:17,340 --> 02:14:26,220
And he made the kind of the joke, and he said he was only half joking, that Lockheed might be better off giving away airplanes and charging for software.

1657
02:14:26,380 --> 02:14:35,880
And that's kind of where we're going, that the price of hardware is asymptoting to zero, and the price of software is asymptoting to infinity.

1658
02:14:36,140 --> 02:14:40,800
So most of the cost these days is in software development, testing, maintenance.

1659
02:14:41,980 --> 02:14:48,980
We're kind of shifting to a world of DevOps, where we're kind of continuously maintaining and developing your code.

1660
02:14:48,980 --> 02:14:51,800
Because that's where the functionality is.

1661
02:14:51,800 --> 02:14:56,000
And I'm a hardware guy saying this, and having to admit how important software is.

1662
02:14:56,000 --> 02:14:57,940
So this is where we're going.

1663
02:14:57,940 --> 02:15:00,500
And we're depending on it more and more.

1664
02:15:00,500 --> 02:15:07,500
So software use has been going up following Augustine's law, which is 10x every 10 years or so.

1665
02:15:07,500 --> 02:15:20,180
It's funny, you go back to 1960s, and NASA flew Mariner 6, I think it went to Venus, with 30 lines of code, three zero lines of code.

1666
02:15:20,200 --> 02:15:25,980
Now it's probably machine code, and all of you who do software know that lines of code is a terrible metric.

1667
02:15:26,000 --> 02:15:33,160
But we use it anyway, because if you can't measure what's important, measure what you can and argue that it's important.

1668
02:15:33,700 --> 02:15:44,000
But we, you know, so now fast forward today, and when they launched the rover on its way to Mars last week, it probably had something like 2 million lines of code on it.

1669
02:15:44,040 --> 02:15:48,820
2 million lines of code is not impressive when you compare it to a car.

1670
02:15:48,820 --> 02:15:52,400
So a new car probably has 100 million lines of code.

1671
02:15:53,520 --> 02:15:55,220
But space is different, right?

1672
02:15:55,220 --> 02:16:00,160
So we're, you know, even so space is going up exponentially in its name, in its use of code.

1673
02:16:00,160 --> 02:16:08,820
And the way we use code is still different from from a car, where we have to, we have a lot more demands on space software than we have even on automotive software.

1674
02:16:09,240 --> 02:16:14,780
And, and that creates, again, more of a threat space for us to be concerned about.

1675
02:16:14,780 --> 02:16:19,000
And when we start depending on code, of course, code can let us down.

1676
02:16:19,360 --> 02:16:25,180
So this is that famous example of what happened with the Mars Climate Orbiter.

1677
02:16:25,360 --> 02:16:32,300
And Mars Climate Orbiter had, was on its way to Mars, was going to inter-orbit around Mars back in 99.

1678
02:16:32,540 --> 02:16:43,000
And the way this mission was, and I'll play the video there, so it was on its way to Mars, it was going to inter-orbit around Mars, and it was going to fire its rocket to inter-orbit.

1679
02:16:43,000 --> 02:16:48,180
Remember, it's on that hyperbolic trajectory, and it was going to just fly by Mars if it didn't slow down.

1680
02:16:48,180 --> 02:17:03,360
So it gets ready to slow down to inter-orbit around Mars, but wait for it, they were only off by 169 kilometers, which means they re-entered, they entered the orbit of atmosphere of Mars and burned up, and there they went.

1681
02:17:03,580 --> 02:17:07,960
So all, all, all because of a units problem.

1682
02:17:07,960 --> 02:17:10,960
This is the infamous units problem you might have heard about.

1683
02:17:10,960 --> 02:17:26,880
So what happened here is that there were, the way this mission was operated, is you had operators in Denver who were keeping track of the, of the bus, basically, and then you had the mission control, which was at Jet Propulsion Lab out in California, who was managing the mission.

1684
02:17:26,960 --> 02:17:40,860
The guys managing the bus out in Denver were keeping track every time the satellite fired these little rockets, and they'd use these rockets for attitude control, but they also had slight impact on the, on the trajectory as well.

1685
02:17:40,860 --> 02:17:49,820
And they were keeping track of all these rocket firings, and they put it into a file, and then they'd ship it out to JPL, where they would actually model the trajectory.

1686
02:17:50,360 --> 02:18:03,560
Well, the guys in Denver were putting it in the file, modeling it as the thrust being in pounds, pounds force, which is an English unit, and then they shipped it out to JPL, where they assumed it was in Newtons.

1687
02:18:03,860 --> 02:18:06,240
Well, what's the difference between a pound and a Newton?

1688
02:18:06,240 --> 02:18:20,800
It's a factor of four, and I, the way I tell Americans to remember this is when they go to McDonald's in Paris, because every American who goes to Paris goes to McDonald's, that they should order a Newton burger instead of a quarter pounder, because that's how you remember that.

1689
02:18:21,160 --> 02:18:24,420
Not a true thing, they don't really sell Newton burgers, but there you go.

1690
02:18:24,680 --> 02:18:32,940
So they were off by a factor of four, which, you know, again, very, they weren't firing these rockets very much, so it was a relatively small correction.

1691
02:18:33,320 --> 02:18:38,220
And to me, there's an interesting Murphy's Law thing going on here.

1692
02:18:39,040 --> 02:18:44,700
You know, you think about it, they could have been off 160 kilometers in the other direction, right?

1693
02:18:44,700 --> 02:18:46,900
I mean, left, right, up, down.

1694
02:18:46,900 --> 02:18:48,420
It just happened to be down.

1695
02:18:48,480 --> 02:18:52,160
You know, talk about flipping a coin and having to go the wrong way.

1696
02:18:52,560 --> 02:18:54,040
It's simply the way it ended up.

1697
02:18:54,040 --> 02:19:02,060
If they'd ended up 160 kilometers further away from Mars, they would have still entered orbit, and they would have said, oh, wow, look, and they would have been fine.

1698
02:19:02,180 --> 02:19:11,500
But because they flipped the coin the wrong way, and they ended up closer to Mars, they burned up and all that because of, you know, the way they managed the software there.

1699
02:19:12,220 --> 02:19:17,080
So they didn't, the software management development plan wasn't, was not fully followed.

1700
02:19:17,140 --> 02:19:22,220
And they hadn't actually, interestingly enough, they never categorized this as critical software.

1701
02:19:23,460 --> 02:19:26,380
Pete's asking how much margin of error do they allow for?

1702
02:19:26,840 --> 02:19:35,520
You'd think they would allow for more than that 100, you know, you know, they made it, you know, 40 million kilometers and we're only off by 160.

1703
02:19:35,680 --> 02:19:52,360
So you'd think they'd have a little bit more margin for error than that, you know, because, you know, once you're, you know, if you're trying to get into a 400 kilometer orbit around Mars, and you instead entered a 600 kilometer orbit, the cost to change that is relatively small.

1704
02:19:52,560 --> 02:20:00,300
So I don't know if they were just trying to, you know, show off and see how closely they could get, but that did not work out for them.

1705
02:20:00,300 --> 02:20:03,420
But you're spot on there on that question.

1706
02:20:03,740 --> 02:20:07,500
Any questions about this particular debacle?

1707
02:20:09,180 --> 02:20:13,800
There's other examples of software getting us in trouble in the space industry.

1708
02:20:13,800 --> 02:20:23,240
There's the maiden flight of Ariane 5, where they reused software from Ariane 4, because, you know, heck, it was just a different rocket, why not?

1709
02:20:23,240 --> 02:20:27,840
And that reused software caused a trajectory deviation, which caused the rocket to blow up.

1710
02:20:27,840 --> 02:20:30,960
So these kind of things can get us in trouble.

1711
02:20:31,020 --> 02:20:38,340
Mars Polar Lander, one line, basically one requirement was not allocated to software.

1712
02:20:38,480 --> 02:20:43,700
And so you can't really blame software on that one, it was really more of a system engineering failure.

1713
02:20:43,800 --> 02:20:52,100
But, you know, these sometimes, you know, seemingly simple things can cause total disaster on systems like this.

1714
02:20:53,420 --> 02:20:57,220
And this is just, this is all us doing it to ourselves, right?

1715
02:20:57,220 --> 02:21:06,540
You know, let alone some nefarious actor getting in there and helping us along, you know, so we do enough damage to ourselves without that.

1716
02:21:06,540 --> 02:21:16,020
The lander, another lander was a European lander, Skier Pirelli, which I've never pronounced correctly, but he was the guy that discovered the canals on Mars.

1717
02:21:16,020 --> 02:21:17,700
That crashed.

1718
02:21:17,700 --> 02:21:28,600
Again, that was not, again, probably not a software error, but not completely well defined software in terms of how it handled the excursions on that inertial measurement unit.

1719
02:21:28,600 --> 02:21:33,480
So, you know, there's always, you always kind of point to a root cause problem.

1720
02:21:33,520 --> 02:21:38,020
But, you know, again, the space is hard enough without people doing bad things to us.

1721
02:21:39,840 --> 02:21:41,040
All right.

1722
02:21:41,040 --> 02:21:42,920
Any other questions on that?

1723
02:21:43,620 --> 02:21:48,620
So, key design issues then to think about for data handling.

1724
02:21:48,620 --> 02:21:56,600
You need to know what level of autonomy your spacecraft has to deal with, and the more autonomy, the more complexity.

1725
02:21:57,360 --> 02:21:59,680
You have to understand all the tasks.

1726
02:21:59,680 --> 02:22:03,380
What are you expecting your software to do, and where will it get done?

1727
02:22:03,380 --> 02:22:04,680
We have some choices.

1728
02:22:04,680 --> 02:22:05,920
We can do things on board.

1729
02:22:05,920 --> 02:22:07,300
We can do them on the ground.

1730
02:22:07,380 --> 02:22:08,420
We can do it in hardware.

1731
02:22:08,420 --> 02:22:09,440
We can do it in software.

1732
02:22:09,440 --> 02:22:10,340
We can do it in software.

1733
02:22:10,340 --> 02:22:11,500
We can do it in firmware.

1734
02:22:12,740 --> 02:22:15,500
You have to understand the environment that you're going to be dealing with.

1735
02:22:15,500 --> 02:22:20,000
How bad will that ionizing radiation environment be?

1736
02:22:20,440 --> 02:22:33,780
NASA has a mission at Jupiter right now called Juno, and they had to take all the avionics and they put it inside a titanium vault, and they used the best possible avionics that they could get and still did all the shielding.

1737
02:22:33,780 --> 02:22:35,520
And so far, it's been holding up.

1738
02:22:35,520 --> 02:22:39,740
They thought it would only last about an Earth year, but I think they're going on, what, three years?

1739
02:22:39,800 --> 02:22:46,640
I haven't seen much report on what their single event upset issues are, but they seem to be still doing okay.

1740
02:22:46,800 --> 02:22:53,300
But Jupiter has an even worse radiation environment than the Earth because it has a more intense magnetic field.

1741
02:22:54,420 --> 02:23:03,680
NASA is talking about landing on one of the moons of Jupiter, Europa, where they have the ice fields, and under the ice, there's an ocean where the intelligent whales live.

1742
02:23:04,040 --> 02:23:11,860
But they think when they land on that surface, on the ice there, they may be only good for a month or two because of the radiation environment there.

1743
02:23:11,860 --> 02:23:19,140
So luckily, the intelligent whales are protected by all the ice, so they're good, but they probably mutate a lot.

1744
02:23:20,040 --> 02:23:23,560
What was the thing from mutated sea bass?

1745
02:23:23,560 --> 02:23:25,880
These are mutated whales.

1746
02:23:26,480 --> 02:23:30,720
Anyway, so the other thing I need to think about are developer needs, right?

1747
02:23:30,720 --> 02:23:32,680
So I've got to develop this code.

1748
02:23:32,840 --> 02:23:34,020
How are we going to build it?

1749
02:23:34,020 --> 02:23:34,720
What language?

1750
02:23:34,720 --> 02:23:35,860
What development environment?

1751
02:23:35,860 --> 02:23:36,880
What tools?

1752
02:23:36,880 --> 02:23:38,460
How am I going to test it?

1753
02:23:38,800 --> 02:23:46,360
And then we have all the operational abilities to consider, flexibility, maintainability, and we should also throw sustainability in there.

1754
02:23:46,400 --> 02:23:52,940
One of the challenges we face in the space industry especially is that we use, you know, we tend to use stuff for decades.

1755
02:23:53,180 --> 02:24:11,020
When the last space shuttle mission landed, the last HAL programmer lost their job because the shuttle was programmed using a language called HAL, circa, you know, state-of-the-art 1975, which by, you know, 2005 was no longer a thing.

1756
02:24:11,220 --> 02:24:19,920
So, you know, when we're trying to maintain software for decades, that creates huge problems for us and, of course, threat surfaces as well.

1757
02:24:20,780 --> 02:24:37,200
So these are the takeaways then for the data handling, understanding what it needs to do, how it has to correct for errors, the hardware-software interactions that we have to deal with, and all the software functions that have to be performed both on board and on the ground for a data handling system.

1758
02:24:37,500 --> 02:24:54,180
So takeaways from a cyberspace lens here, that first of all, RF security is a relative small sub-niche of cybersecurity, because we tend to focus, as you might expect, more on, you know, fiber, because that's what most data is moving around.

1759
02:24:54,180 --> 02:25:00,020
But RF is a unique, you know, we are uniquely dependent on RF in the space industry.

1760
02:25:00,020 --> 02:25:08,960
Now, and getting access to that equipment is relatively easy, but as we mentioned, everybody tends to encrypt their stuff, so you have to know their encryption capability.

1761
02:25:09,610 --> 02:25:18,240
But there are a lot of hardware-software vendors out there, there are multiple development environments, there are legacy languages, and all those create additional vulnerabilities.

1762
02:25:18,560 --> 02:25:30,380
And then, of course, space relies heavily on software, and the more people get involved there, the more, you know, both grounded on board, the more additional vulnerabilities we end up making.

1763
02:25:32,220 --> 02:25:39,780
Any questions on the vulnerability section, on the RF or data handling?

1764
02:25:53,100 --> 02:25:56,000
How are they looking at future AI?

1765
02:25:56,380 --> 02:25:58,460
Yeah, AI is an interesting discussion.

1766
02:25:58,460 --> 02:26:07,620
I mean, space, I'd say, is fairly far behind on that in a lot of ways, because, again, we tend to be pretty conservative in how we approach that.

1767
02:26:08,780 --> 02:26:23,440
There, you know, I've seen discussion of AI more for things like data mining on going through, you know, Kepler's data for looking for planets, you know, using it, you know, for post-processing, but not so much for, you know, real-time.

1768
02:26:23,560 --> 02:26:35,580
I remember even back in the 80s, there was talk about, you know, expert systems supporting operators, but, you know, it's amazing that even 30 years later, that still has not really become a thing.

1769
02:26:35,580 --> 02:26:42,140
So, you know, that's kind of that trade-off between autonomy versus automation that we get a lot.

1770
02:26:42,140 --> 02:26:57,180
So I don't see a whole lot of talk, maybe something that maybe Terry might have a better insight there, but I haven't heard a lot of talk in the space business about more emphasis on AI for certainly for operations.

1771
02:26:59,000 --> 02:27:08,220
Decision support, yeah, maybe for operators, but again, I haven't... I remember that being a quite a bit of talk many years ago, but I haven't heard much recently about that.

1772
02:27:08,400 --> 02:27:10,920
Terry, do you have an update on AI applications?

1773
02:27:11,400 --> 02:27:13,200
I don't, not in the space arena.

1774
02:27:13,200 --> 02:27:16,300
I haven't really seen anything there either.

1775
02:27:16,560 --> 02:27:22,040
Yeah, it's again, we tend to be pretty slow to the party for new technologies like that.

1776
02:27:25,670 --> 02:27:27,510
We're going to find the slides, Meno.

1777
02:27:27,590 --> 02:27:34,790
They are posted and maybe if Matt's on, he can tell you where they are in the Discord channel.

1778
02:27:34,790 --> 02:27:37,070
Are they in the Discord channel, Matt, the slides?

1779
02:27:39,710 --> 02:27:41,850
They are in the Discord channel.

1780
02:27:41,910 --> 02:27:47,530
Yeah, Meno, they're there and if you can't find them, email me and I can always send them to you.

1781
02:27:48,450 --> 02:27:51,650
Okay, let's pull up... I'm going to do two things here.

1782
02:27:53,070 --> 02:27:55,590
I'm going to give you your cyber challenge.

1783
02:27:55,590 --> 02:27:58,070
So here's your cyber challenge for the day.

1784
02:27:58,790 --> 02:28:00,630
So I'm going to go through the challenge.

1785
02:28:00,630 --> 02:28:02,890
Then I'm going to post the poll.

1786
02:28:03,030 --> 02:28:06,570
Then you can take the poll while you're thinking about the challenge.

1787
02:28:06,570 --> 02:28:09,450
And then we'll get back together and talk about it.

1788
02:28:09,470 --> 02:28:12,430
So here's our scenario, right?

1789
02:28:12,430 --> 02:28:21,710
So there's a company called Wiley Imaging and they've been operating a high resolution commercial remote sensing satellite now for about two years.

1790
02:28:21,790 --> 02:28:24,750
And the US government is one of their biggest customers.

1791
02:28:24,770 --> 02:28:29,030
It's in a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 710 kilometers.

1792
02:28:29,110 --> 02:28:33,290
And it has a node crossing of 1030 southbound every morning.

1793
02:28:33,290 --> 02:28:39,330
When it crosses the equator going south, the local time is 1030 in the morning.

1794
02:28:39,330 --> 02:28:41,190
That's what we call it, sun-synchronous.

1795
02:28:41,190 --> 02:28:43,610
That means you get shadows.

1796
02:28:43,610 --> 02:28:48,150
You get mid-morning shadows every time you fly over the equator like that.

1797
02:28:48,770 --> 02:28:57,590
Wiley operates their own ground station here in Colorado, but they lease access to two other ground stations in Norway and Alaska.

1798
02:28:58,110 --> 02:29:12,210
They're up at the high latitude and this is a sun-synchronous, which means it's nearly a polar orbit, which means that Norway and Alaska ground stations can see that satellite nearly every orbit, which is convenient.

1799
02:29:12,490 --> 02:29:19,470
The satellite was built by Acme Aerospace in Iowa and there are two other satellites currently in development that plan to be launched next year.

1800
02:29:19,470 --> 02:29:20,630
So that's the background.

1801
02:29:21,130 --> 02:29:29,050
So the issue is, during the last two passes, we had a Passover in Norway and then we had a Passover in Colorado.

1802
02:29:29,110 --> 02:29:36,130
The operators noticed bad headers on about 10 percent of the health and status telemetry data packets.

1803
02:29:36,130 --> 02:29:39,270
They didn't see any problem with the payload data packets.

1804
02:29:39,410 --> 02:29:43,790
And it's actually not unusual that you have separate downlinks.

1805
02:29:43,790 --> 02:29:51,010
You have a downlink for health and status and you have a separate downlink, separate frequency for payload data.

1806
02:29:51,010 --> 02:29:55,150
So the fact that those are different is not too amazing.

1807
02:29:55,150 --> 02:29:56,590
That's actually kind of normal.

1808
02:29:56,850 --> 02:30:03,570
But they only saw the problem with the health and status packets and it's on the header on the packets.

1809
02:30:03,570 --> 02:30:14,830
But this is about a thousand times worse than they would have expected because we usually plan for like 10 to the minus 5, 10 to the minus 6, let's say one in a million bits to have a problem.

1810
02:30:14,830 --> 02:30:19,750
And here you're seeing about a thousand times worse than that or maybe even worse than a thousand times worse.

1811
02:30:19,750 --> 02:30:21,990
So it's a lot worse than they would have expected.

1812
02:30:22,950 --> 02:30:24,790
So here are your challenge questions.

1813
02:30:24,790 --> 02:30:31,990
So first of all, how would you determine if this issue were due to natural or man-made causes?

1814
02:30:32,970 --> 02:30:37,310
What would your potential reasons be if it were natural causes?

1815
02:30:37,970 --> 02:30:44,230
Assuming though that it's malicious cause, what opportunities would a bad actor have had?

1816
02:30:44,970 --> 02:30:50,330
Assuming it's malicious cause, what vulnerabilities could a bad actor have exploited?

1817
02:30:50,470 --> 02:31:00,050
And then given there are two other satellites in development, what other design or operational changes could we think about to prevent future issues?

1818
02:31:00,050 --> 02:31:03,370
So those are the questions I want you to ponder.

1819
02:31:03,630 --> 02:31:09,930
While you're pondering that, I'm going to put up the poll, last poll of the day here.

1820
02:31:11,250 --> 02:31:14,250
So you can... I'll let you multitask here.

1821
02:31:14,350 --> 02:31:18,470
So you can do the poll and then think about the cyber challenge.

1822
02:31:18,470 --> 02:31:21,750
You can do the cyber challenge and then come back and think about the poll.

1823
02:31:22,030 --> 02:31:27,730
But let's take about 10 minutes to go through that.

1824
02:31:28,170 --> 02:31:32,610
And I'll give you 10 minutes to take the poll and think about the challenge.

1825
02:31:32,650 --> 02:31:41,810
And then we'll get back together and we'll see if some brave soul online here wants to volunteer their answer to the challenge.

1826
02:31:41,810 --> 02:31:50,110
So if you have a multi -deck slide presentation in the next 10 minutes, I'll let you share that with the team.

1827
02:31:50,230 --> 02:31:56,530
So let's take about 10 minutes and think about the poll questions and the challenge scenario.

1828
02:31:56,530 --> 02:32:04,750
And then we'll bring it back together, review the poll, and then we'll step through the how to think about this particular challenge problem.

1829
02:32:04,790 --> 02:32:08,170
And then we'll wrap it up and we'll be able to call it a day here on time.

1830
02:32:08,390 --> 02:32:14,130
So go do one or the other or both, and we'll check back here in about 10 minutes.

1831
02:34:19,830 --> 02:34:26,570
If anybody has any questions about the challenge, just let me know and we can try to clarify things for you.

1832
02:36:03,490 --> 02:36:08,990
We'll be looking for a brave volunteer who wants to tell us how to solve the challenge here.

1833
02:37:43,310 --> 02:37:46,590
And I've also posted an end-of-course survey.

1834
02:37:46,590 --> 02:37:54,570
We can't use polls for surveys because the data is not persistent in Zoom, so we're using a separate polling thing.

1835
02:37:54,570 --> 02:37:58,670
But if you could follow the link to do that poll, we'd appreciate your feedback .

1836
02:37:58,670 --> 02:38:02,550
That'd be great to help us figure out how to improve the course for next time.

1837
02:38:03,250 --> 02:38:14,030
So I'll give you another five minutes or so to think about the polls, our poll questions here, and then we'll pull together and talk about the challenge and then wrap it up.

1838
02:39:22,570 --> 02:39:30,430
All right, not much attendance on the polls here, but let's go ahead and close that out and then we'll talk about our challenge.

1839
02:39:32,010 --> 02:39:37,070
So, which of the following changes would not increase EV over NO?

1840
02:39:37,070 --> 02:39:37,990
So data rate.

1841
02:39:37,990 --> 02:39:43,930
So making a higher data rate would be the wrong way to go if I'm trying to increase EV over NO.

1842
02:39:44,550 --> 02:39:48,430
To jam a satellite, you need to have some noise at the receiver.

1843
02:39:48,430 --> 02:39:49,690
That would do the trick.

1844
02:39:50,510 --> 02:39:56,170
Threat service software has not been static over the years.

1845
02:39:56,170 --> 02:39:57,930
It's been growing.

1846
02:39:58,110 --> 02:40:12,670
To spoof a satellite , you need to know all of the above things, which is a lot of things you have to be aware of, which means you probably need some sort of way to get into the details of people's design requirements.

1847
02:40:13,510 --> 02:40:16,770
And space software is both light and agile.

1848
02:40:16,770 --> 02:40:21,950
Actually, no, we're kind of the opposite of light and agile in the space business.

1849
02:40:22,610 --> 02:40:25,370
All right, well, let's talk about the challenge.

1850
02:40:25,410 --> 02:40:30,530
Do I have any brave soul online who wants to tackle the questions?

1851
02:40:33,850 --> 02:40:38,510
Anybody feel confident about talking through how you think about these challenge questions?

1852
02:40:44,010 --> 02:40:46,110
Only one person at a time.

1853
02:40:48,050 --> 02:40:53,990
That's the nice thing about virtual presentations, the ability to remain anonymous is much higher.

1854
02:40:53,990 --> 02:40:57,230
When you're in a classroom, it's sort of kind of hard to hide.

1855
02:40:57,290 --> 02:41:03,210
You know, I can stand, I can hover over you and intimidate you to tackle it.

1856
02:41:04,210 --> 02:41:07,010
It's less intimidating if we talk through it together.

1857
02:41:07,010 --> 02:41:07,930
There we go.

1858
02:41:07,930 --> 02:41:09,030
Let's do that.

1859
02:41:10,190 --> 02:41:15,630
So, let's kind of talk through the background first.

1860
02:41:15,670 --> 02:41:19,090
So, remember the background information here.

1861
02:41:19,230 --> 02:41:33,970
So, I just want to highlight some things that come out of the background, you know, and as we approach these, you know, as you go forward and start thinking and working in this environment, yeah, we think about, you know, what kind of information should I be keying in on?

1862
02:41:33,970 --> 02:41:38,050
So, on the first bullet there, we want to key in on the fact that the U.S.

1863
02:41:38,050 --> 02:41:40,190
government is one of their largest customers.

1864
02:41:40,190 --> 02:41:44,390
So, certainly everybody in the world is sort of fair game, but the U.S.

1865
02:41:44,390 --> 02:41:47,150
government is sort of a high profile target.

1866
02:41:47,150 --> 02:41:48,690
So, if you're supporting U.S.

1867
02:41:48,690 --> 02:41:51,190
government, you're kind of putting a target on your back.

1868
02:41:51,370 --> 02:42:00,430
So, that raises the threat potential up quite a bit, just the fact that they got, you know, government's one of their big customers.

1869
02:42:00,930 --> 02:42:05,730
The next bullet has to do with the orbital mechanics, which we covered here within the class.

1870
02:42:06,590 --> 02:42:18,430
So, just the type of orbit I'm in will, in this particular orbit, will limit the number of times a day that somebody could have access to that satellite from a given site.

1871
02:42:18,550 --> 02:42:24,550
So, that really restricts when somebody could have had access to that satellite, you know, line of sight.

1872
02:42:24,550 --> 02:42:30,870
So, that is a constraint that kind of narrows the window there in which somebody could have had access.

1873
02:42:31,450 --> 02:42:39,990
The other thing to clue in on there is that the Wiley is operating, they're leasing ground stations from in Norway and Alaska.

1874
02:42:39,990 --> 02:42:41,250
So, these are lease stations.

1875
02:42:41,250 --> 02:42:47,070
So, these are companies that are basically just selling time on their ground site.

1876
02:42:47,070 --> 02:42:56,010
So, these people, you know, so, you know, anytime like I'm leasing something, I don't have a lot of control over the software, the procedures, the personnel.

1877
02:42:56,230 --> 02:43:00,270
You know, these people are just doing a job passing data from one person to another.

1878
02:43:00,310 --> 02:43:05,030
They're going to work, you know, get my data right now, and 10 minutes from now, they'll get data from somebody else.

1879
02:43:05,030 --> 02:43:11,510
They don't have any particular loyalties to me, my company, my data, my program, or anything, right?

1880
02:43:11,510 --> 02:43:13,450
They're just doing a job.

1881
02:43:13,530 --> 02:43:18,630
And that means I don't have a lot of insight too, because I'm basically buying by the minute.

1882
02:43:18,630 --> 02:43:28,670
I probably can't demand to see all their software, procedures, or security reviews, or, you know, polygraph interviews with people if they do that.

1883
02:43:28,670 --> 02:43:30,710
I don't have any right to ask that stuff, right?

1884
02:43:30,710 --> 02:43:32,410
I'm just buying by the yard.

1885
02:43:33,170 --> 02:43:37,710
And then finally, we got two other satellites in development, which is maybe a good thing.

1886
02:43:37,710 --> 02:43:45,790
We ought to think about, okay, well, if there is a hard problem that we've come up with, maybe there's a chance to resolve that.

1887
02:43:45,990 --> 02:43:47,970
Pete's saying, can you put that in the contract?

1888
02:43:47,970 --> 02:43:49,350
You can try.

1889
02:43:49,750 --> 02:44:02,770
But, you know, if I'm Universal Space Network, I probably have 100 customers, and I got one small customer coming in demanding a bunch of stuff for security, I might just tell them to take a hike.

1890
02:44:02,770 --> 02:44:10,590
Like, sorry, I don't have the time to give you that, or I'm going to charge you a lot for that.

1891
02:44:10,590 --> 02:44:14,410
So it just depends on how big of a lever you have.

1892
02:44:14,410 --> 02:44:20,370
And if you're one of N customers, you probably don't have that big of a lever on that.

1893
02:44:21,410 --> 02:44:34,890
So the other thing then to think about from an issue standpoint, so as I said, you know, this issue only impacted the health and status, which is not necessarily unusual.

1894
02:44:35,050 --> 02:44:38,830
So that should not... it's not overtly suspicious.

1895
02:44:38,830 --> 02:44:44,870
So that shouldn't necessarily raise any alarm bells, but it's a useful thing to be aware of.

1896
02:44:45,910 --> 02:44:50,350
And so it appears the problem is just in how the protocols are implemented.

1897
02:44:50,350 --> 02:45:00,790
So this tends to be a software thing where, you know, you're going to be taking all these ones and zeros and organizing them into packets and adding headers and footers and things like that.

1898
02:45:00,870 --> 02:45:05,190
But it appears to be random, but it only appears to be on the header.

1899
02:45:05,190 --> 02:45:11,890
So, but again, depending on how that packet protocol works, that is not necessarily suspicious either.

1900
02:45:11,930 --> 02:45:19,170
You know, so, but, you know, but these are all things that just file away in the back of your mind before we tackle the question.

1901
02:45:19,170 --> 02:45:25,290
So we always want to, you know, make sure we understand the lay of the land before we dive into the details of the question.

1902
02:45:25,350 --> 02:45:30,230
So first question is, well, how do we know that if it's natural or manmade?

1903
02:45:30,230 --> 02:45:36,410
So I put up here what's called a fishbone diagram or root cause analysis or Ishikawa diagram.

1904
02:45:36,530 --> 02:45:42,330
Some of you may have seen these before, but they're a very useful tool to try to get at root cause.

1905
02:45:42,910 --> 02:45:44,950
And we do it with without prejudice.

1906
02:45:44,950 --> 02:45:47,170
We just, it's a brainstorming tool.

1907
02:45:47,430 --> 02:45:50,450
And you can think of it as a mind map if you're used to mind maps.

1908
02:45:50,450 --> 02:46:01,810
But so we say we kind of list, and you've all seen detective movies, right, where the detectives have the big board and they have the suspects and they have, you know, yarn going between everybody in circles and all that.

1909
02:46:01,810 --> 02:46:03,010
I mean, that's kind of what this is.

1910
02:46:03,010 --> 02:46:05,490
This is our suspect board.

1911
02:46:05,510 --> 02:46:08,950
And so we say, well, who are the usual suspects, right?

1912
02:46:08,950 --> 02:46:14,950
And equipment, process, people, materials, environment management, those tend to be the usual suspects.

1913
02:46:15,830 --> 02:46:22,230
And we would lay out within those, okay, from an equipment standpoint, what could cause this problem?

1914
02:46:22,230 --> 02:46:25,610
What from a process standpoint, what could cause this problem?

1915
02:46:25,610 --> 02:46:27,610
And we're not trying to solve the problem.

1916
02:46:27,610 --> 02:46:31,410
We're trying to say, who are the suspects in this problem?

1917
02:46:31,410 --> 02:46:33,810
And then we can start whittling away.

1918
02:46:33,810 --> 02:46:40,650
Once we've defined the trade space of options, then we can start whittling away.

1919
02:46:40,650 --> 02:46:43,250
We can go interview the suspects, see if they have an alibi.

1920
02:46:43,250 --> 02:46:46,510
If they have an alibi, then okay, then they're not a suspect anymore.

1921
02:46:46,510 --> 02:46:49,930
But we'd be thinking about equipment on board.

1922
02:46:50,230 --> 02:46:53,230
Okay, well, what about that equipment, hardware, software?

1923
02:46:53,310 --> 02:46:54,590
Are there any processes?

1924
02:46:54,590 --> 02:47:02,850
Maybe somebody on the ground did something wrong in the configuration, and it's being garbled on the ground.

1925
02:47:02,850 --> 02:47:07,190
Maybe it's coming, it's fine on the spacecraft, it's getting garbled somewhere on the ground.

1926
02:47:07,330 --> 02:47:10,070
Maybe there's people, maybe people that had poor training.

1927
02:47:10,070 --> 02:47:15,430
Maybe there's people that are maliciously, you know, scrambling this on their own.

1928
02:47:15,430 --> 02:47:16,250
I don't know.

1929
02:47:17,090 --> 02:47:21,210
Environment, of course, would be the big thing to look at, single event upsets.

1930
02:47:21,210 --> 02:47:33,290
And what we might do there is call up the space weather people and find out if there was any sort of large coronal mass ejection somewhere in that time period.

1931
02:47:33,290 --> 02:47:43,610
You know, we're trying to correlate, you know, what the time, because we can sort of narrow down when it happened, because it seemed to be fine one pass, and then it wasn't fine the next pass.

1932
02:47:43,610 --> 02:47:46,390
So that narrows down the window there.

1933
02:47:46,390 --> 02:47:58,470
If there was any sort of specific thing going on, maybe there was a solar event that could have happened in that time frame, or maybe it was going through this area of the Van Allen belts, we call the South Atlantic Anomaly.

1934
02:47:58,550 --> 02:48:04,490
You know, any of those things could, you know, raise our suspicion level.

1935
02:48:06,030 --> 02:48:08,930
You're saying wouldn't that affect everything, not just the heterogeneity?

1936
02:48:08,930 --> 02:48:10,230
Well, it's random, right?

1937
02:48:10,230 --> 02:48:16,630
So all I need is one silver bullet to go into my software, and I don't know what it's going to do.

1938
02:48:16,630 --> 02:48:26,610
You know, and if it just happened to affect the one place where that gets encoded on the headers, then, you know, I can't immediately rule that out.

1939
02:48:26,970 --> 02:48:34,370
I mean, yeah, it's high, you know, low probability, but I don't, I wouldn't immediately rule that out, right?

1940
02:48:34,810 --> 02:48:37,710
So I want to take a look at it, and I want to do this systematically.

1941
02:48:37,710 --> 02:48:46,330
What we're trying to do is have an, you know, an unbiased, you know, let's not jump to conclusion and, you know, start launching nuclear weapons at bad guys because they attacked our satellite.

1942
02:48:46,590 --> 02:48:51,570
We want to, you know, let's find a smoking gun, but let's do it methodically.

1943
02:48:51,710 --> 02:48:56,490
So this is how I would go about trying to, to come to that root cause.

1944
02:48:56,490 --> 02:49:02,530
And we may decide, no, there, you know, there's the probability of this being natural is just too low.

1945
02:49:02,530 --> 02:49:07,590
It has to, and, you know, the, the impact is too, too systematic.

1946
02:49:07,690 --> 02:49:09,690
It's not random enough.

1947
02:49:09,910 --> 02:49:17,130
And therefore we might, you know, start to suspect, you know, people, which is, you know, malicious actors in that case.

1948
02:49:17,770 --> 02:49:28,030
If it were environment, which is question two, again, we've been, as we've been talking, it's most likely a single event upset that could cause that, but, but not necessarily.

1949
02:49:28,030 --> 02:49:33,910
It could be a, maybe thermal stress led to a problem with a processor or something like that.

1950
02:49:33,910 --> 02:49:41,890
So, you know, there are other potential environmental causes as well, but single event upsets tends to be one that causes these sort of random events.

1951
02:49:42,570 --> 02:49:46,730
But assuming it is malicious going to question three, where are the opportunities?

1952
02:49:46,730 --> 02:49:51,430
Well, I mean, if it happened between passes, that's a pretty narrow opportunity.

1953
02:49:51,430 --> 02:49:57,410
I say, I mean, maybe an hour, they could have had opportunity to do some sense, something directly in there.

1954
02:49:57,450 --> 02:50:06,990
And again, that's not out of the question, but that would mean they would have had to actually command our satellite directly, which means they would have had to know all those things we talked about.

1955
02:50:06,990 --> 02:50:12,550
They'd have to have the frequency, they'd have to have the encryption, they'd have to have the command codes.

1956
02:50:13,010 --> 02:50:16,130
They'd really have to know our system very well.

1957
02:50:17,130 --> 02:50:20,730
Not out of the question, but again, fairly low likelihood.

1958
02:50:21,770 --> 02:50:27,150
So it would seem it's probably more likely that that came in somewhere sooner.

1959
02:50:27,150 --> 02:50:39,610
And maybe it came in as a Trojan horse to be, you know, with a, with a time tag that says after, you know, you know, 30 hours from now or 30 weeks from now, implement this.

1960
02:50:39,710 --> 02:50:42,470
And so, and so who knows when it was injected?

1961
02:50:42,470 --> 02:50:47,170
It could have been all the way back to the factory, right?

1962
02:50:47,170 --> 02:50:49,190
So we don't know at this point.

1963
02:50:49,270 --> 02:50:52,690
But those are, so that's, that's the malicious thing.

1964
02:50:52,690 --> 02:51:02,550
That's the scary thing about code is that, you know, you can put code in that can be sitting there, you know, kind of a sleeper agent to get, get activated who knows when.

1965
02:51:03,510 --> 02:51:05,490
So what are the vulnerabilities then?

1966
02:51:05,490 --> 02:51:12,130
Just, you know, again, if I'm talking about hundreds, you know, a satellite like this probably has hundreds of thousands of lines of code.

1967
02:51:12,810 --> 02:51:17,090
Yeah, you could be hiding in there somewhere and maybe get overlooked.

1968
02:51:17,090 --> 02:51:18,990
You can get overlooked during testing.

1969
02:51:19,310 --> 02:51:25,310
In the fact that we've got these, we're using the ground stations that to me, that's a, that's a red flag.

1970
02:51:25,310 --> 02:51:34,630
And it's just, you've got things outside your span of control, direct span of control that can be entry points for bad actors there.

1971
02:51:35,510 --> 02:51:40,370
And then finally, we, because we have these guys still in the barn being, being developed.

1972
02:51:40,370 --> 02:51:48,410
If it turns out the problem is a natural environment problem that our, our hardware maybe is not robust enough against single event upsets.

1973
02:51:48,410 --> 02:51:51,370
I mean, we could consider swapping out processors.

1974
02:51:51,370 --> 02:51:55,710
I mean, that's a pretty major design change, especially fairly late in the game.

1975
02:51:55,850 --> 02:52:04,110
But if it turns out we're particularly vulnerable, or maybe there's some thermal issue that caused it.

1976
02:52:04,310 --> 02:52:11,930
We may have to take a serious look at our design to see if we can mitigate that in, but through a design change.

1977
02:52:11,970 --> 02:52:15,990
If it's code, we may have to do a full scrub.

1978
02:52:15,990 --> 02:52:21,930
We may have to go back through and look at all the software grounded on board to see if there's anything hiding in there.

1979
02:52:21,950 --> 02:52:24,610
And maybe we need to go take a look at our personnel.

1980
02:52:24,610 --> 02:52:31,090
Maybe go to do a, you know, security check on our people and see if there's any, anything suspicious going on there.

1981
02:52:31,090 --> 02:52:38,130
And somebody, you know, driving to work in a Ferrari and last week they had a, you know, junker car.

1982
02:52:38,410 --> 02:52:41,010
And you know, where'd they get all the money all of a sudden kind of thing.

1983
02:52:41,410 --> 02:52:43,050
You know, that might look suspicious.

1984
02:52:43,050 --> 02:52:45,430
So, so those are things we could look at.

1985
02:52:45,890 --> 02:52:50,270
Pete's asking if it was a code update, how would they consider do that for ones on orbit?

1986
02:52:50,370 --> 02:52:56,430
Well, we can, we actually can change code on orbit pretty well.

1987
02:52:56,430 --> 02:53:13,630
I mean, again, depending on the extent, you probably, you couldn't change your entire architecture maybe so much, but, but if it turns out that was, you know, this was lurking in one unit or module of code, we could, that would be a, you know, not, I would say easy thing to do,

1988
02:53:13,630 --> 02:53:19,510
but it's a doable thing to re overwrite that code or patch around it or something like that.

1989
02:53:19,510 --> 02:53:19,610
Yeah.

1990
02:53:19,610 --> 02:53:22,970
We, we make code changes fairly often.

1991
02:53:22,970 --> 02:53:27,970
I mean, you know, almost, you know, I would say routinely are making code changes on spacecraft.

1992
02:53:27,970 --> 02:53:32,570
So that, that would not be a difficult thing to do depending on the extent.

1993
02:53:32,570 --> 02:53:42,290
Now, again, if it's, you know, if it's corrupted badly, that might take a lot of surgery to fix, but, and we may not have a choice there if this is a problem.

1994
02:53:44,210 --> 02:53:46,290
Anybody see, did I miss anything there?

1995
02:53:46,290 --> 02:53:53,310
Any, any other issues or ideas that maybe we might want to think about as we tackle this, this challenge?

1996
02:54:09,120 --> 02:54:10,000
All right.

1997
02:54:10,000 --> 02:54:13,100
Well, we did pretty well then today.

1998
02:54:13,100 --> 02:54:16,760
So let's recap what we did today.

1999
02:54:16,760 --> 02:54:21,460
So we, we went through, we started with context.

2000
02:54:21,460 --> 02:54:25,840
So we looked at that mission architecture and the reasons we went to space.

2001
02:54:25,880 --> 02:54:28,040
We talked about opportunities.

2002
02:54:28,040 --> 02:54:37,300
So we looked at orbits and operations, got you all up to speed on how to do a, you know, to become orbital mechanics.

2003
02:54:37,300 --> 02:54:41,100
So you're getting ready to get out your wrench and fix an orbit next time.

2004
02:54:42,220 --> 02:54:48,260
We looked at threats, natural and human threats, especially those natural threats and how insidious they can be.

2005
02:54:48,260 --> 02:54:54,980
And, you know, just the, the denials of service we get on a day-to-day basis, just because space is a hard place to be.

2006
02:54:55,100 --> 02:54:57,780
And then we finished up looking at those vulnerabilities.

2007
02:54:57,780 --> 02:55:06,360
So the RF, RF links, spent some time looking at how we make sure that we get viable connections through the RF links.

2008
02:55:06,360 --> 02:55:15,900
And then talked about the data architecture and overall data systems ground and on board that also become potential threat surfaces for us.

2009
02:55:15,900 --> 02:55:17,680
So that was what we tried to cover.

2010
02:55:17,940 --> 02:55:19,640
These were our objectives.

2011
02:55:19,640 --> 02:55:25,200
So again, we're trying to climb that learning trajectory there from, from the pad all the way into orbit.

2012
02:55:25,200 --> 02:55:27,600
Wanted you to have some core space knowledge.

2013
02:55:27,600 --> 02:55:36,080
So you feel a little more confident talking to people about space issues and some of the limitations and capabilities and threats and vulnerabilities that are out there.

2014
02:55:36,080 --> 02:55:41,260
Wanted you understand some of the trade-offs, especially as they apply to cybersecurity domain.

2015
02:55:41,400 --> 02:55:48,260
Things like the access that you get from orbital mechanics and the, all the different things that happen in operations.

2016
02:55:48,260 --> 02:55:57,800
There's nine different things that we laid out of, of activities and operations and, and any one of those can be a potential entree for a threat.

2017
02:55:58,280 --> 02:56:04,940
The natural environment, I hope you had a, an appreciation for how hard that environment is just, you know, on a good day.

2018
02:56:05,220 --> 02:56:13,940
And now when we throw bad actors in there, what, what, you know, relatively small changes can have big impact on overall mission operations.

2019
02:56:14,400 --> 02:56:29,080
And then finally wanted you to be able to step back from some real world scenarios and apply the knowledge that we gained here in the class and be able to look at those critically to understand what kind of issues might come up and how would we think through these issues?

2020
02:56:29,080 --> 02:56:33,500
And we're going to see these issues, I think, come up more and more over time.

2021
02:56:33,500 --> 02:56:42,500
And we have to be able to, you know, differentiate the natural, naturally occurring problems from the unnaturally occurring ones, and then figure out what to do about it.

2022
02:56:42,500 --> 02:56:48,040
I mean, we've got a, there's a lot of potential holes to plug here in terms of vulnerabilities.

2023
02:56:48,060 --> 02:57:00,060
And we may be, you know, running around playing holes or all our life, but we have to be able to ready to identify those holes and think about what kinds of things we can do to address them going forward.

2024
02:57:00,740 --> 02:57:03,340
So we thank you for your time and attention.

2025
02:57:03,340 --> 02:57:04,160
Thanks, Terry.

2026
02:57:04,160 --> 02:57:06,580
Thanks, Jason, for this.

2027
02:57:06,580 --> 02:57:11,760
And we'll, I'll probably stop recording at this point.

2028
02:57:12,260 --> 02:57:16,420
And I'll just kind of throw it open to any other questions.

2029
02:57:16,560 --> 02:57:22,660
I'll hang around as long as anybody needs if they have questions, and we will go.