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480	6020	There we go. Welcome to Understanding Space Through a Cybersecurity Lens. I'm Jerry Sellers.
6160	11520	And a little bit about me. So I did 20 years in the Air Force, mainly space stuff. I worked space
11520	16440	shuttle mission control back in the day. I worked about 14 different shuttle flights, including
16440	21560	on console for the Challenger accident and then worked return to flight after that. So if you
21560	28620	saw the movie Apollo 13, anybody, I actually worked for Gene Kranz back in the day. Then
28740	33920	a bunch of other stuff in the Air Force, all space related. I retired from the Air Force in 2004.
34100	41340	And then our small company, TSDI, we do training and workforce development and
41340	46560	system engineering consulting kind of all over the industry. So I'm also adjunct at
46560	52280	Stevens Institute of Technology and at Georgetown, do some graduate courses with them. And I'm an
52280	59280	Agile guy, so I teach Agile around the industry a bit too. I'm here today with two other folks
59280	64180	helping me out. So I'll turn first over to Terri. Terri, if you want to say a few words about yourself.
64720	70640	Hi there. I am Terri Johnson and I'm the chair of the Computer Networking and Cyber Department
70640	78220	at Pikes Peak Community College, located here in Colorado Springs. I started in IT over 20 years
78220	84500	ago, really specializing in computer networking and then securing those computer networks,
84500	92360	starting out with Deloitte and Anderson, two of the big five or whatever they're called now,
92360	98000	tax and audit firms. And then I realized that I really have this love for education and have
98000	106840	served on as both faculty and staff in K-12 and higher ed.
107820	111800	Like when I have free time, I really like to spend it on beaches.
113300	118140	So you're... and I'm coming to you from Colorado and actually all of us are in Colorado,
118140	124180	so she's at a virtual beach back there. And then helped today too by Jason. Jason,
124180	135460	say a quick word about yourself. Yes, I am a high school student. I'm
136100	144140	interested in computer science and cybersecurity. I am on the robotics team and I participate in a
144140	151060	number of local coding competitions and I'm just going to be helping out here.
151060	153760	So he's getting a little experience rubbing shoulders virtually with
153760	162580	the folks in the cyber community. So this is good practice for him today. So our company is TSTI,
162580	168120	so we do training consulting around the industry. We like to say we have a front row seat to the
168120	174440	industry. We get to see what kind of challenges everybody has at NASA, ESA, DOD, industry.
174520	179960	We work on a lot of... support a lot of textbook development work and we... our company does
179960	184600	on-site training back when you can do that. We've kind of pivoted 100% virtual training
184600	190420	since COVID. We also do coaching and integrated programs and then we do other consulting,
190420	195380	especially in model-based system engineering. It's a very growing area for us.
196140	201120	So I saw one question in there in the chat about reasonable rockets. Let's hold that question.
201120	206900	That's a good one to bring up when we get to the break. So if you've got specific questions about
206900	211000	the material, I'll probably handle that right then. If it's a good question, but I think we
211000	216240	might deserve a deeper answer, I might wait until the break. So if you're okay with that,
216240	221900	that's how we'll proceed. So here's our overview of what we're going to try to do this afternoon.
222260	227420	I'm going to start with big picture. We want to know the context for space. And that context is
227420	234160	also the context in which cybersecurity has to occur with respect to space. So we'll tackle that
234160	238480	and we'll look at this thing we call a space mission architecture and how all the puzzle
238480	244340	pieces that have to go together to make a space mission be successful. We'll then look at various
244340	251880	opportunities. So opportunities for people to do necessarily possibly the various things.
251920	257080	And with respect to that, we'll look at orbital mechanics and mission operations. We'll focus on
257080	263120	those two, if you will, threat surfaces. And then we'll look at specific threats having to do with
263120	268360	natural environment in space and the man-made environment. And we're going to see the natural
268360	274400	environment is pretty darn nasty. So it's hard enough to work in space, let alone just throw
274400	279160	humans on there to try and do bad things. But we'll try to understand both of those potential
279160	283840	threat areas. And then we'll end up this afternoon looking at vulnerabilities. And we'll look at two
283840	290020	key vulnerabilities, one being RF links. So the RF systems, radio frequency systems shown there in
290020	296660	cartoon as uplinks, downlinks. These are the pipes that carry the data that we use in missions.
296660	300720	And then we'll talk a bit about the space data architectures that we use in ground and onboard
300720	307040	systems. So here's our objective. Oh, sorry. First of all, this course is based around this textbook.
307040	311780	So there's a textbook called Understanding Space. And it's available through that website.
312120	318900	This is part of the Space Technology Series. I think there's roughly up to 30 books now in that
318900	322880	series that tackle all kinds of different space subjects. So if you're interested in
323280	327600	pretty much anything to do in space, there's a textbook probably for it. But this is the
327600	332440	introductory book. And a lot of the material here, the images came out of that book. So if you're
332440	338040	interested in that, you can try to get a copy of that. So here's our objectives for the afternoon.
338340	342240	We're going to start by trying to build some core space knowledge. So we're basically launching you
342240	347380	on a trajectory here, where we're going to start by, you know, laying the foundation and launch pad
347380	351320	with our core space knowledge, what is the space mission architecture,
351320	356920	and that kind of thing. And then we'll look at how we build upon that to understand the
356920	362400	basic capabilities and trade-offs and limitations as they apply specifically to the cybersecurity
362400	369440	domain. We're going to focus on orbital mechanics and the opportunities or lack thereof that that
369440	374760	creates for getting access to space systems, and then look at the operational architectures as well
374760	380060	and see how that can constrain access. As I said, we'll focus on the natural and human-made
380780	385120	threats that can be out there, especially the natural ones, and what kind of vulnerabilities
385640	391820	that comes out from there, as we look at things like radio frequency links and the
391820	399520	data architecture. So somebody's asked for the recording. I think we'll be posting that recording.
399520	403620	I just sent the morning recording off to the organizers. So they're going to put that on
403620	410160	Discord somewhere. I don't know where they put that. But if you... did I put my email?
412180	418920	Yeah, no, I didn't. Yeah, I put my email address. So if anything comes up in this course or
418920	424260	afterwards, please feel free to reach out to me. If you can't find the recording or whatever,
424260	431360	I can get it for you. So please feel free to track us down if you need to. So here's our
432200	437140	agenda. We're in afternoon session, day one over there on the left. So we're just getting started.
437160	442260	And you see the course is broken into kind of half-hour segments. So we'll tackle a subject
442260	447440	for about a half an hour. And then I've got some poll questions that I'll ask you, just kind of
447440	452560	see if you've been paying attention. And it also gives us a chance to discuss some of the topics
452760	457640	a little deeper. We'll have time for a little stretch break in there. And also we can tackle
457640	463100	any sort of other questions that you might come up with that are a little off-topic,
463100	467720	but I wanted to build in some time to talk about those somewhat off-topic questions. We have some
467720	473400	great questions this morning about slingshot trajectories and other stuff. So again, kind of
473400	479440	any questions, spare game out here. So feel free to come up with stuff. We've got time built in
479440	485280	to do that. So we'll hit each section roughly by a half hour, take a poll, have a short break,
485280	492320	and then we'll get right back at it. And then you want to save up some energy for the very end,
492320	497640	because then we're going to have a little cybersecurity challenge for all of you. So I'm
497640	501640	going to present you with a scenario and you're going to have to think through what you do to
501640	508160	respond to that potential cybersecurity scenario. So get ready for that. That's coming here at the
508160	512820	end of the afternoon. So it should be pretty action-packed, hopefully a fun afternoon for you.
513240	517980	So let's start with the contents. So I'm a big picture guy. I like to think about, okay, what,
517980	521760	you know, how does this, let me show you the, you know, I can't put together the pieces of
521760	525820	the puzzle until you show me the picture on the front of the box. Okay. So this is the picture
525820	529780	on the front of the box of what the puzzle is going to look like. And that puzzle has these
529780	534140	various key pieces that we want to look at. We call that, we put that whole puzzle together,
534140	539080	we call it the space mission architecture, which includes orbits and trajectories, spacecraft,
539080	545880	vehicles, operations, and at the core there, we have the mission itself. So we want to know how
545880	550780	all those pieces go together. That's what we're going to start by tackling. And to do that,
550780	554820	we want to first understand, well, why, because we're going to look at the mission,
554820	559600	why do we go to space at all? You know, what are the reasons that we would even bother spending
559600	565980	all this money, time, effort, risking people's lives to go to space? And space, it turns out,
565980	570780	is a pretty big industry. I think as of last year, the latest numbers I saw, space is a
572440	579860	$420 billion industry. I mean, it rivals the airline industry in terms of size. So it's a
579860	585300	pretty big industry. So where's all this money coming from? Why are people even making money
585300	589280	in space? Why do we go to the time and trouble to go to space? So we list here what we call
589280	596540	space impurities, the unique aspects about space that make us want to go there. And so we have
596540	602840	global perspective, clear view of the heavens, free fall environment, resources, and the final
602840	609980	frontier. So those, those reasons, those five reasons we might go to space, which do you think
609980	617140	is the single most important? The reason that we most often go to space, and the reason most people
617140	622720	make money in space? Who wants to guess which of those five are the most important?
625200	628560	But you just put it in the chat, or you can shout out.
630120	634560	I'd say the global perspective, you can see the whole world.
635000	641300	Absolutely. Yeah, you nailed it. So I live in Colorado. So I like to tell people,
641300	646820	the reason we go to space is to get high. That's the main reason we go to space,
646820	653680	because it's higher. By being higher, we can see more stuff, right? The more I can see,
653680	659580	the better I can understand what's going on. If we could simply build a tall tower and look down,
659580	663780	we'd probably prefer to do that. But we can't build a tower quite that tall. Although I have
663780	669680	some colleagues trying to build a space elevator, but that's another discussion. But, but by being,
669680	674660	being high, we can see more, right? And the more I can see, the more I can understand
674660	681740	what's going on. It turns out back in the, back in the 50s, in 1957, when the Russians launched
681740	689800	Sputnik, they actually did us a favor. They, they, they established the precedent, international law,
689800	697660	that you can overfly any country from space. Now, you can't overfly any country in the air,
697660	700880	you can't just get an airplane and go fly over Canada, they wouldn't like that.
700880	706900	But you can overfly Canada from space. There, that's international law, that's an okay thing
706900	713400	to do. So that, that established space is sort of open sky in terms of the ability to go over
713400	719100	and overfly anything that's out there. So that was Sputnik 1. And then later on,
719100	724860	they flew a couple other missions. And then anybody know the first animal to fly in space?
726920	732280	The Russians flew the first animal in space. Yeah, the dog, the dog was named Laika. You may
732280	736840	remember Laika? So Laika, Laika was a dog that flew in space. And of course, we didn't know much
736840	741300	about Laika, you know, during the Soviet times. But after the fall of Soviet Union, information
741300	747300	came out about Laika. And it turns out, Laika was not any ordinary dog. They scoured the entire
747300	751740	Soviet Union to find a special dog, because they wanted to have a talking dog, because they
751740	754840	couldn't have an air-to-ground link. So they, they needed a talking dog to talk to the dog.
754840	759820	So Laika was a talking dog. And when Laika came down to land there, she was supposed to land on
759820	764900	the land. But you know, the early times, her guidance wasn't that accurate. So she ended up
764900	769420	landing in the, in the, in the sea. It was a stormy night, and a little capsule got kind of
769420	774260	tossed around. And they finally got the capsule up on the beach, and they opened up the hatch,
774260	780780	and Laika came trotting down. They said, Laika, how was the trip? And she said, rough. So yeah,
780780	786840	talking dog, Laika. But so actually, that's a lie. Laika couldn't talk. Actually, Laika,
786840	791400	unfortunately, burned up on re-entry, which is why the Russians say they invented the hot dog.
791400	797980	So, but there we go. So, but I digress. So we get up there to be high, we get there to see what's
797980	803420	going on. And that's the most important reason. These other reasons are cool, too. But in terms
803420	808020	of making money, being high is where it's about. So while we're up there, we can do some cool
808020	813200	things. So being high, one of the most important things we can do is provide communication. So
813200	817280	Arthur Clarke came up with this idea. Arthur is a science fiction writer. He came up with this
817280	822860	idea in the 40s. Actually, somebody else came up with it, but he's popular for stating it,
822860	827040	is that if I could put a satellite that two people could see on opposite sides of the Earth,
827040	831180	and they can both see the satellite, then we could talk through that satellite. So we can relay
831180	836560	information through that satellite. That special orbit we can use to do that is called geostationary
836560	841880	orbit. We'll talk about that here in a little while. And if you look at the bottom picture
841880	846400	there, you can see out of the, this is not quite the scale, the geostationary orbit is pretty
846400	851720	popular. There's roughly 400 active satellites up there in geostationary orbit, mostly doing
851720	856720	communication. And they're not really stacked up like little bb's there. That's just showing how
856720	862740	many are in a given slot. The slots are pretty big, about a one degree slot, roughly 360 degrees,
862740	866680	if you will, around the Earth, roughly one degree slots. So there can be more than one
866680	872880	satellite in a slot. But it's a very popular place to be. If you own a slot, if you have
872880	879280	license to use a slot, that's literally money in the bank. So it's like owning beachfront property
879280	884620	because they're not making any more of it. So very popular place to operate from in space.
885760	890400	You can kind of see where the popular places are. You can see there's a lot kind of over in Europe,
890520	895500	a lot over in North America, a lot over Asia, not so much over the middle of the Pacific.
895880	901640	So that's where most of the money being made in space today is, is in geostationary com.
902240	907080	The other big area that's not so much a moneymaker, although people do make money on GPS,
907080	912880	but is certainly an enabler for the global economy, is navigation, and really position
912880	919140	navigation and timing, global geospatial navigation services. And of course, the most
919140	926940	most popular there is GPS, the global positioning system operated by the Air Force, now Space Force.
926940	932180	And then of course, there's GLONASS, there's the Chinese Beidou system, and there's Galileo,
932180	937120	the new European system. So there's more and more systems coming available, which is good,
937120	941220	it gives us some backup. Because if you think about it, the entire global economy
941780	948260	depends on this capability for position navigation and timing. If you were to take out that capability,
948260	954620	the world economy would be worse shape than it is right now. So really bad. ATMs wouldn't work,
954620	958220	wouldn't be able to use a lot of global communication. And of course, you know,
958220	964940	people would get lost. So all this is key. So it's and the ability to do GPS is provided by
964940	970040	the fact that we can put satellites in a high orbit. And standing on Earth, I can see at least
970040	974980	four satellites at any one time, four times, it turns out to be the magic number I need to solve
974980	979720	the problem. So I can see four satellites at once, usually, I can see more than that.
979840	984620	I can get that by having those satellites up there in a very high orbit. So any place on Earth,
984620	990220	you can always see at least four satellites. So that's simply an advantage of being up there high.
990260	994400	And I'm here on Earth, I can access those satellites quite easily. And now I have the
994400	999560	ability to do my navigation. So that high ground, again, that global perspective
999560	1006480	is being leveraged by GPS and other navigation systems. And of course, the other thing we can
1006480	1010960	do by being up there is we can look down, we can look down and take pictures of what's happening
1010960	1016960	on Earth. So that's our what we broadly call remote sensing kind of missions. And, and of
1016960	1021820	course, obvious one would be something like the nightly weather report, you just had a hurricane
1021820	1027160	pass off the coast of Florida. So you probably saw some of the images from that all came from
1027160	1031200	satellites. We have satellites in geostationary orbit and in low Earth orbit
1031900	1037920	that monitor the weather. And then we have all kinds of satellites that do imaging.
1038340	1043800	Planet Labs has a whole number of satellites they do for daily imaging of the Earth. And you can do
1043800	1048900	low resolution, high resolution. Of course, the military does very high resolution imagery spy
1048900	1055920	satellite type things. We have missions like that do just environmental monitoring that will look
1055920	1062540	for ozone monitoring and things like that. Landsat is a long term mission that has been
1062540	1066140	flown now for gosh, going on 40 years, that they've been monitoring the Earth's environment
1066140	1072200	for that long. So nice longitudinal data in terms of behavior. And these spy satellites all go back
1072200	1078060	to the early days. So one of the very first, well, the first military satellite we tried to build was
1078060	1083960	to do was spy satellites. And that was a mission called Corona, not to be confused with the beer
1083960	1090020	or the virus. But the Corona mission was stood up by the National Reconnaissance Office at the
1090020	1096740	time. That was his job was to go do that. And to give you an idea of the priority, their 13th
1096740	1103940	flight was successful. They had 12 consecutive failures and still got funding to keep going.
1104520	1107740	And they launched these satellites up into space. This is now the early 60s.
1107740	1109780	How did they get the pictures down?
1111900	1113700	Anybody know how they got the pictures down?
1114780	1115200	What's that?
1115200	1118000	I know, when they dropped like film rolls?
1118280	1125400	Yes, they, they ejected the film rolls from the satellite, the satellite, the film rolls
1125400	1130500	entered the containers, obviously, enter the atmosphere, and then they popped a parachute,
1130500	1134280	and then they would snatch them out of the air. And then they would send them to a place called
1134280	1138440	photomat. And you get your pictures back in a couple of weeks, right? That was the
1138440	1144920	Instagram of the day, right? That's when we use this stuff called film. Yeah, hard to believe
1144920	1149720	that they actually literally launched rolls of film, and then parachuted the rolls of film down
1149720	1155820	from outer space. It's hard to hard to imagine. But that's what they did. It wasn't until the 70s
1155820	1161840	that they went to all digital. So I mean, you can pretty much, you know, thank spy satellites for
1161840	1167180	the digital capability, digital camera capability, you have on your cell phone today, and the ability
1167180	1173800	to develop the CCDs and that sort of technology came and was pushed by remote sensing kind of
1173800	1180020	missions. So again, why there? Why can we do this? Because we're above the earth because we're high
1180020	1186060	because we can see what's going on. So let's explore that architecture now a little bit deeper
1186060	1191660	now that we understand why we're going to space. And the first part of our architecture is why
1191660	1197660	is the mission, right? And so in 1961, President Kennedy gave a very famous speech about going to
1197660	1205100	the moon. I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal before this decade is
1205100	1212180	out of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth. No single space project
1212180	1218700	in this period will be more impressive to mankind or more important for the long range exploration
1218700	1223780	of space and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.
1238910	1245530	So in that case, Kennedy outlined a very simple mission, right? At least simple in terms of
1245530	1250010	articulating it, right? Land a man on the moon, turn him safely to the earth, end of the decade.
1250010	1255670	Three goals and objectives right there. So what we want to know about any mission is, first of all,
1255670	1260750	what need are we addressing? Here it was the need to, you know, beat the Russians. But then what
1260750	1264430	are the goals and objectives we're trying to accomplish? And how do we plan to go about
1264430	1269070	accomplishing that? We call that the concept of operations. So we want to know all those things
1269070	1275850	to give us an idea of the why. Once we know the why, we can figure out the how. And the how
1275850	1280810	usually starts with a spacecraft. So a spacecraft is a satellite in orbit, and we'll talk about
1280810	1286050	orbits a bit later here. And that satellite's going to do a job. And that satellite, we can
1286050	1291090	break into two parts. We call it the payload and the bus. So the payload is the part that's doing
1291090	1296670	the mission. It's taking the pictures, it's sending the... it's relaying the HPO signal,
1296670	1301250	whatever it is its mission is doing. And then the bus is there to support the payload. So just like
1301250	1305730	our little cartoon in the bottom there, the button, you know, the school bus's job is to get
1305730	1312630	the payload, the kids, school. So that payload... we got a live mic here...
1317820	1322940	that payload then is getting transported by the bus. And so the bus has to have what? It has to
1322940	1329460	have structure, it has to have, you know, propulsion, it has to have a radio, air conditioning, all the things
1329460	1334860	to keep the payload happy. And that's what we're doing in any mission, right? We have the
1334860	1341360	bus carrying the payload, the payload's doing the mission, the bus is carrying the payload.
1341740	1345860	And we typically will often... sometimes we'll actually split up the operations with that.
1345960	1351560	There's a DOD mission where the Army operates the payload and the Air Force, I guess now Space
1351560	1357420	Force, operates the bus. And that's a... because it's a big mission and it's a lot to manage, so they
1357420	1363040	split that between two organizations. And some science missions may have a dozen
1363040	1368700	different payloads, and so you may have multiple payload operators for different parts of that.
1368700	1373420	So that's kind of how we want to think about our mission. We have our mission at the center,
1373420	1378580	have our spacecraft that's doing the job, and we have the payload that's actually doing the
1378580	1384840	interaction, taking the pictures, the bus supporting the payload. And then we... once we're up there,
1384840	1389980	the spacecraft has to operate from an orbit. And as we're going to see, we can think about an orbit
1389980	1394520	like a big racetrack. And so once I get into that racetrack, I'm going to be going around,
1394520	1399280	around the Earth all day long, and then I'm going to look down. And when I look down, I'm going to
1399280	1404900	see some amount of the Earth. How much I see depends on how high I am, right? The higher I am,
1404900	1410660	more of the Earth I can see. As I look down then, that cone that you see in that cartoon on the
1410660	1417480	bottom, that cone has a field of regard. The field of regard is everything I potentially can see.
1417480	1423420	And then the field of view is what I actually do see when I, say, point my camera. I've got an
1423420	1429420	animation of that coming up a little bit later. And then that swath, you see that line across
1429420	1434420	there, that tells you how much of the Earth I can see as I'm kind of going around the Earth. So that
1434420	1439860	swath... think about mowing a lawn, right? I'm mowing a swath across the Earth, and depending
1439860	1445080	on how high I am, and depending on some other factors of my mission, that'll tell you how wide
1445220	1450160	a swath I can cut. And if I cut a wide swath, then maybe I don't need to orbit the Earth very many
1450160	1455480	times to see everything. If I have a narrow swath, I may have to orbit the Earth quite a few times
1455480	1460600	before I see everything. And so that's going to be a big trade-off for us in terms of access to
1460600	1465940	information on the ground and access from the ground to the satellite, as we're going to see.
1465940	1470740	We'll look at a thing called ground tracks and see why that's important. The other piece of the
1470740	1476620	problem is getting to space. So here's our launch of the Atlas V launch of the NASA CIRUS-REx mission
1477220	1483000	from a couple of years ago. She had a big old Atlas V rocket and
1485980	1491900	liquid oxygen kerosene engines on the first stage there, RD-180 engines. And that's going to take
1491900	1498280	you into orbit, into that orbit we just talked about. Rockets are broken into stages, and that's
1498280	1504720	because of the just inherent limitations of the rocket technology we have today. In this case,
1504720	1509460	their stage is not recoverable. If I'd shown you Falcon 9, it'd probably show you recovering that
1509460	1515120	first stage. It's also LOX kerosene, it turns out. But that's how I'm going to get to orbit. And we're
1515120	1520820	going to see how much energy that launch vehicle has to deliver for me to get into orbit. Turns out
1520820	1526660	that's quite a bit. Once I'm up there, now I can start doing my mission. And the main reason I'm
1526660	1531920	in space, I'm up there, I'm high, I'm looking down at the earth, I'm up there either creating data or
1531920	1537880	moving data, right? So the whole name of the game in the space business is about ones and zeros going
1537880	1543660	from one point to another, right? How those ones and zeros get around are on all these links that
1543660	1549260	we're going to talk about. So that's that communication architecture we show there at
1549260	1555340	the top. So all of mission operations is about people, processes, and things for doing the job.
1555340	1561840	We've got a lot of things, a lot of infrastructure, manufacturing, launch capabilities,
1561840	1566320	communication networks. And then I have all the people, the mission management and operations
1566320	1571740	that are actually running the mission. So I have a classic picture down there at the bottom. That's
1571740	1577120	the Apollo 13 mission after they successfully got the astronauts back from their harrowing
1577120	1583080	experience. You see dozens of people there just in the front room. But a large mission like
1583080	1588060	human spaceflight, International Space Station, literally has thousands of people around the world
1588060	1593340	supporting that. Now, if I have a little CubeSat mission, maybe only have a dozen or so people
1593340	1598660	supporting that. But still, you've got people, right? People, processes, and things that we need
1598660	1604740	to run the mission. Then finally, we have system engineering and project management to pull it all
1604740	1609440	together. So system engineering is our process of turning a need into a capability. System
1609440	1613980	engineering is about balancing cost schedule performance along with risk to deliver our
1613980	1620200	mission successfully. And then we have our project management to lead the team and ultimately try
1620200	1628540	to deliver the program on cost, on schedule, on budget with acceptable risk. And then supporting
1628540	1634740	all that, and especially as we kind of emerge into this area of cyberspace and cybersecurity
1634740	1639420	for space, is we have an organization that we can call out here called Information Sharing and
1639420	1646540	Analysis Center, the ISAC, started just a year or so ago to look at trying to pull together some of
1646540	1652780	these threats and opportunities in cyberspace. So they work with industry and they work with
1652780	1658840	government, focusing on three key areas of supply chain, safety, business systems, and overall
1658840	1664880	missions to try to make sure that we're staying, keep the community aware of what the cybersecurity
1664880	1671360	issues could be. So there's our big picture context. I wanted to understand why we go to
1671360	1676680	space for that global perspective, what kinds of missions we do up there, especially communication,
1676680	1682520	remote sensing, and navigation. I want you to understand what we mean by that space mission
1682520	1688600	architecture that includes the mission itself, the spacecraft, the orbit, the launch vehicle,
1688600	1694160	mission operation systems as well. So from a cybersecurity standpoint, what we'd like you to
1694160	1700600	take away here is an understanding and appreciation for how important space is to the global economy.
1700600	1706200	Not only is it a big industry just by itself, and nearly half a billion, half a trillion dollars,
1706200	1713700	but it's integral to pretty much everything. So from cell phones, to power grids, to GPS,
1713700	1719880	to commercial transportation, and simply knowing where you are in commercial and financial markets,
1719880	1726240	we depend, we the world, depend on space. And of course, the more you depend on something,
1726240	1731100	the more vulnerable it can potentially be, and that's the vulnerability we want you to be aware
1731100	1737180	of. And because of that, space is becoming a larger attack vector that we have to focus on.
1737180	1741680	And then finally, just be aware of the space ISAC and what that collaborative groups like that can
1741680	1747740	help do for us. All right. There was a good question about reusable rockets I want to get to
1747740	1754620	in here in a second. But any specific questions about what we just covered in terms of big picture?
1757940	1760760	See, we ended up with a pretty healthy crowd. So that's great.
1761620	1764100	Any questions that came out from what we covered?
1768760	1775380	Yeah, I think I have a question. So I am French, so I have a French accent. So I hope you will,
1775380	1781140	you will be able to understand me. I have to go on another. So it was really
1781620	1789000	interesting. And thank you so much. And I have to go on another talk. But can I have your email
1789000	1793260	address? Because I would like to ask you some questions, but I need to leave now.
1793580	1796880	So is it possible that you write it in the chat, maybe?
1798000	1800520	Yeah, it was in the slides that I just put there too.
1800520	1805660	I didn't. Okay, well, that's really nice. Thank you so much. And I will need to leave
1806740	1808080	Zoom really soon.
1808080	1811940	Well, we'll be doing it again tomorrow and Sunday morning. So if you want to drop back.
1812280	1813740	At what time?
1814260	1819340	Tomorrow. Tomorrow's at nine and at 1.30.
1820480	1821200	Okay.
1821200	1823300	And then another one on Sunday at 9am.
1823380	1824100	Yep.
1824100	1835740	Okay. Is it written on the DEFCON schedule website with Aerospace Village?
1835740	1836940	I'm not sure. I didn't see it.
1836940	1839440	It should be. Matt should be able to answer that.
1839440	1845420	And if you check in the Discord, there's an Understanding Space Discord channel.
1845960	1850700	Okay. That's great. Thank you.
1850980	1854080	You bet. Any other specific questions from what we covered?
1856620	1858600	All right. I'm going to give you the poll.
1861190	1864410	So let's launch the poll there.
1864930	1867310	So take a couple of minutes to answer the poll.
1867550	1871330	And we will start back up in about 10 minutes.
1871330	1873210	So this gives you a chance to answer the poll.
1873210	1874970	And then we'll cover the poll.
1874970	1879030	And then we'll pick right back up there. And we're going to hit Opportunities.
1879030	1883590	So buckle up. We're going to talk about Orbital Mechanics when we get back.
1883590	1887190	So go ahead and take the poll. Take a stretch break if you need it.
1887190	1890130	And then we'll dive into Orbital Mechanics in a minute.
1954880	1956820	And do your best with the poll questions.
1956820	1959800	And then if there's any other questions you have from what we've covered so far,
1959800	1964280	or if there's something you want to make sure I do cover, please put that in the chat.
2034430	2038770	All right. I'm getting pretty good participation in the chat there or in the poll.
2040910	2042530	Give everybody another minute or two.
2042530	2046270	And then we'll go through the poll and see if we have any other questions.
2046270	2048790	And then we'll pick up from there.
2084320	2088620	All right. Let's see how we did in the poll here and share the results.
2090820	2092140	So... all right.
2092140	2096940	So single most important reason we go to space is to get high, right?
2096940	2099800	Ultimate high ground, to get that global perspective.
2099840	2102020	It's more than just getting above the atmosphere.
2102020	2105400	In fact, we'll see we don't always even get above the atmosphere completely.
2105620	2109720	It's about getting up there so we can see more stuff.
2109720	2111680	That's the single most important reason.
2111680	2113740	And it's not to experience zero G.
2113740	2117820	So we'll talk about that word. We don't like to use that word.
2118660	2122600	So the part of the spacecraft that does the business, basically does the mission,
2122600	2126920	we call that the payload, the thing that takes the pictures or collects science or whatever.
2127720	2135680	And then mission operations systems is all the ground and space-based infrastructure we need
2136440	2137320	to coordinate.
2137320	2140220	We call that the glue that holds the mission together.
2140220	2143900	So that's broadly, we call that mission operations systems.
2144420	2146980	Space capabilities, yep, definitely true.
2146980	2149060	It becomes so integral to everything we do.
2149060	2151860	It's hard to imagine life without space.
2152200	2155180	We've become, if anything, too dependent on it.
2155320	2160000	And then ISAC focuses on those key areas there,
2160000	2162780	supply chain, business systems, and missions.
2162820	2164220	So good stuff.
2166140	2170400	Any questions before we dive a bit into orbital mechanics?
2172160	2174660	Right. So when we're done here,
2174660	2180060	the goal is to make you all a genuine bonafide certified orbital mechanics.
2180300	2183280	So, and I can tell you where to buy the toolkit,
2183280	2186060	but you'll be an orbital mechanic.
2186060	2188780	You'll be certified to fix people's orbits.
2188780	2190040	You'll be all ready to go.
2190040	2193500	So that's what we're doing in this section is really focused on opportunities.
2193500	2199600	So where are the opportunities to actually do things to space systems?
2199640	2201880	And some of those are quite limited as we'll see,
2201880	2203960	based on things like orbital mechanics.
2203960	2206200	Some of them are quite open because we have a pretty wide
2206720	2210900	attack space potentially in the area of mission operations.
2210900	2213120	So we're going to look at orbits and operations
2213120	2217800	as two opportunity areas that we have to focus on.
2218460	2222740	So, as I said a little bit ago, that when we look at orbits,
2222740	2226500	the first order you can imagine an orbit is like a big racetrack.
2226500	2228920	So think of this racetrack going around the earth,
2228920	2229840	round and round all day.
2229840	2232960	I've got the Hubble Space Telescope in that racetrack,
2232960	2235300	and it's just going around and around all day long.
2235340	2239460	In the U.S., we have a kind of a popular sport called NASCAR.
2239900	2242840	And the joke is, you know, how do you escape
2242840	2245420	if a NASCAR person is chasing you?
2245420	2247720	And the answer is turn right.
2247880	2251380	Because in NASCAR, they just turn left all day long,
2251380	2253440	going around, around, around, around the track.
2253520	2255600	And that's pretty much what a satellite does.
2255600	2259080	It just goes around, around, around, around the track all day long.
2259080	2262180	In low earth orbit, that takes it about 90 minutes
2262180	2263480	to go once around the earth.
2263480	2265440	So it's roughly 15 times a day.
2265540	2267380	It's going to go around, around the earth.
2267520	2268640	And that's what it does.
2268640	2269880	And that's what we want it to do.
2269880	2271120	We want it to be predictable.
2271120	2273840	We want it to be in the same orbit all the time.
2274100	2275820	And those are things that they're going to help us
2275820	2278240	understand how to do our mission operations.
2278400	2280660	So we're trying to get into that racetrack.
2280660	2282500	Well, how do we get into that racetrack?
2282500	2284780	Well, to get into that racetrack, we have to remember
2284780	2286580	there's this thing called gravity.
2286800	2288560	And so if you drop something, it goes down
2288560	2291060	and you forget how gravity works.
2291120	2292560	Just remember the earth sucks.
2292560	2293940	It just pulls it down.
2294140	2297100	So if I drop a baseball, it's going to fall.
2297380	2299560	So in my cartoon in the upper right,
2299560	2301620	I now have two baseball players.
2301980	2303620	I have one who's going to drop a ball
2303620	2305680	and I have one who's going to throw a ball
2305680	2308120	from the same height at the same time.
2309020	2311280	So if I drop a ball and I throw a ball,
2311280	2313340	which one should hit first?
2313480	2316160	Well, way back in the day, there was a guy named Aristotle.
2316240	2318360	He thought that if you had a heavy ball and a light ball,
2318360	2320300	that the heavy ball would fall faster.
2320300	2323000	And it wasn't until Galileo came along and said,
2323000	2324220	hey, let's try it.
2324220	2325960	And he figured out, well, wait a minute,
2325960	2328900	heavy ball, light ball, everything falls at the same rate.
2328920	2330680	So it turns out gravity doesn't care
2330680	2332340	about the motion of the ball.
2332340	2333580	You can throw it, you can spin it,
2333580	2334760	you can do whatever you want to it.
2334820	2336920	It's still going to fall at the same rate,
2336920	2338380	which at the surface of the earth
2338380	2341600	is about 9.8 meters per second squared.
2341840	2344320	So if you don't believe me, I've got a little video here
2344940	2348600	that shows this simultaneous dropping and throwing.
2348600	2351140	So I'm going to drop a ball here
2351140	2353580	and throw a ball at the same time.
2356800	2359240	And you can see there in slow motion,
2361040	2363120	they're hitting at the same time.
2366530	2368570	If anybody likes the Mythbusters,
2368570	2369670	remember the Mythbusters,
2369670	2371510	they did one where they shot a bullet
2371510	2373070	and they dropped a bullet.
2373070	2375190	So the bullet went like 300 feet
2375190	2376450	and then hit the ground.
2376530	2378130	And they showed the same thing,
2378130	2380730	whether you drop it or even with a bullet,
2380730	2381850	right, it's still going to fall
2381850	2384110	at the same rate as when you drop.
2384190	2385830	Okay, so what does that mean?
2385830	2388390	Okay, so now we get a little thought experiment here
2388390	2389830	to understand orbits.
2389850	2391650	So picture the earth, right?
2391650	2393550	Imagine the earth is a perfect sphere.
2394390	2396570	If the earth were a perfect sphere,
2396570	2399990	then for every eight kilometers you go horizontally,
2399990	2403190	the earth curves away five meters.
2403190	2405370	So we're going to do a little thought experiment here.
2405370	2407330	We're going to build a tower on the earth
2407330	2409250	that's five meters tall.
2409250	2410850	And on that tower,
2410850	2412370	we're going to put a diving board
2412370	2414590	that's eight kilometers long.
2414590	2416530	So if I walk all the way up to the edge
2416530	2418810	of that eight kilometers and look down,
2418810	2421090	the earth is going to be 10 meters below me
2421090	2422850	because I started out five,
2422850	2424490	I went out eight kilometers,
2424490	2426550	the earth curved away five meters.
2426550	2429510	The surface here could be 10 meters
2429510	2432530	below the edge of the diving board.
2432530	2433670	Okay, well now,
2433670	2435310	imagine I was going to throw a baseball.
2435870	2436970	So I'm going to go back to my tower.
2436970	2438170	I'm going to throw a baseball.
2438170	2440130	I'm going to throw it really fast.
2440130	2443330	I'm going to throw it eight kilometers per second.
2443470	2445250	So that means it's going to reach the edge
2445250	2447230	of the diving board in a second.
2447370	2449570	Well, how far will it fall in a second?
2449570	2451570	Well, it turns out the distance you fall
2451570	2453810	is one half AT squared.
2453990	2456110	So A is 9.81.
2456110	2457930	So we'll just call that 10.
2457930	2459310	And half of 10 is 5.
2459310	2460850	So basically in one second,
2460850	2463230	you're going to fall five meters.
2463230	2465610	So you started out five meters above the surface.
2465610	2468050	You went out eight kilometers in a second.
2468050	2469270	You fell five meters
2469270	2473310	and you are still five meters above the surface.
2473830	2476670	Well, what's going to happen the next second?
2476790	2479230	Well, you're going to go another eight kilometers.
2479590	2482010	You're going to fall another five meters.
2482010	2484830	The earth is going to curve away another five meters.
2484830	2487590	You're still going to be five meters above the surface.
2487590	2489650	You are in a circular orbit.
2490190	2492570	What did it take to get into a circular orbit?
2492570	2495410	You had to go eight kilometers per second horizontal.
2496010	2500150	Is this a condition of free of zero gravity?
2500370	2502310	No, you're falling.
2502310	2504470	The earth is pulling you down.
2504470	2506910	You are just going so fast forward
2506910	2511090	that the earth is curving away as fast as you go forward.
2511090	2513410	So you keep missing the earth, right?
2513410	2515490	You're falling, but you keep missing the earth
2515490	2517450	because the earth keeps curving away from you.
2517450	2519610	That's what allows you to be in a circular orbit.
2519610	2522970	It's about that horizontal velocity.
2522970	2528030	So sometimes people talk about centrifugal force stuff.
2528030	2531670	If anybody tells you about centrifugal force with respect to orbits,
2531670	2533130	just that's not right.
2533130	2535950	There's no such thing as a centrifugal force, it turns out.
2535990	2537810	It's all about the speed.
2537810	2541930	It's about going fast and so fast you keep missing the earth.
2541930	2543570	If you don't believe me, check Newton.
2543570	2546450	If you go into Newton's, you can see Newton's sketch pad
2546450	2548410	back when he was in his 20s.
2548410	2551030	He drew little cannonballs being launched from cannons
2551030	2553170	and showed how you would get into orbit, right?
2553170	2557310	And there was no centrifugal force concept going on there.
2557310	2560550	It's just about the velocity and this concept of gravity.
2561730	2564850	So depending then on how hard I throw the ball,
2564850	2566790	I'm going to get into a different orbit.
2566790	2570430	So at any given altitude, there's only one specific velocity
2570430	2573370	that'll give me exactly a circular orbit.
2573370	2576630	If I throw it a little faster than that circular orbital velocity,
2576630	2579010	then I'll be in an elliptical orbit.
2579010	2580790	If I throw it slower,
2580790	2583630	then I'll become an intercontinental ballistic baseball
2583630	2585930	and I'll take out Rio down there.
2586750	2591550	The shape of this trajectory is actually also an ellipse.
2591550	2593370	Now they might've told you in high school physics
2593370	2595690	when you throw basketballs or baseballs or something
2595690	2597810	that those are parabolic.
2597810	2599810	They're not, it's an ellipse.
2600650	2603470	So this is an ellipse that happens to intersect the earth.
2603470	2607110	If I do in fact throw the ball really, really fast,
2607110	2612670	then I can enter my own independent orbit around the sun that's different.
2612670	2614110	I'm no longer tied to the earth
2614110	2616410	and I'm in my own independent orbit around the sun,
2616410	2619710	different than the earth, but I don't really go anywhere.
2622150	2624370	And I used to say, we don't do that.
2624370	2626090	And then we started doing that.
2626250	2630070	And as we call that earth trailing orbits now.
2631110	2632550	Solar observation.
2633770	2637950	If I want to go somewhere, I got to throw the ball even faster.
2638110	2642330	So it goes out to the edge of the earth's gravitational sphere of influence
2642330	2645770	and actually has excess velocity to go somewhere.
2645770	2648670	We call that hyperbolic excess velocity.
2648690	2652790	So when NASA launched the Perseverance rover to Mars last week,
2652790	2654810	it not only had to escape the earth,
2654810	2657050	they had to escape the earth with extra velocity
2657050	2660050	that would allow it to go all the way to Mars.
2660050	2663470	So it left earth on a hyperbolic trajectory.
2663470	2667810	It then entered an elliptical trajectory around the sun.
2667810	2671810	And then it's going to encounter Mars again on a hyperbolic trajectory.
2671810	2674170	And they'll have to fire rockets to inter-orbit.
2674270	2677170	Well, actually, with rover, they're going to directly enter.
2677170	2678470	They got a big heat shield.
2678470	2680650	So they're going to just slam right in the atmosphere.
2680730	2682430	That's how they'll bleed off all that energy.
2682430	2686470	And then they'll land on Mars using their complicated sky crane thing
2686470	2687710	they have worked out.
2687710	2690470	So no matter what I do, there's only four options.
2690470	2692550	Circle, ellipse, hyperbola, parabola.
2692610	2695670	And in reality, you can never get a perfect circle
2695670	2698030	and you can never get a perfect parabola.
2698030	2703630	So the only things we'll see is in reality are ellipses and hyperbolas.
2703630	2707750	And for our business of orbiting around the earth, everything is an ellipse.
2707750	2710990	Now, a lot of orbits are close enough that we call them circular,
2710990	2716390	but realize to go out enough decimal places, they're not exactly circular.
2716390	2718490	So those are our orbit options.
2718530	2720130	Any questions on that so far?
2720130	2721610	What it takes to get into orbit?
2725550	2732730	Are there like orders of magnitude in terms of how much power you need to get out there?
2732730	2736490	Does it like increase significantly or is it all fairly linear?
2737150	2738670	That's a really interesting question.
2738670	2740990	So let me let me tackle that here in a second,
2740990	2743630	because that's an interesting way to think about it.
2744550	2748670	So when I'm getting up into orbit, so first of all, I got to launch the ball, right?
2748670	2750650	So I got to get that ball going fast.
2750650	2754770	So if I don't get it going quite fast enough, it's going to smash into the earth.
2754770	2758130	If I have it going just fast enough, it enters a circular orbit.
2758130	2761970	If I go a little faster, it's going to enter an elliptical orbit.
2762410	2767050	So as I said, right around the earth, you know, low earth orbit, a couple hundred kilometers up,
2767050	2770190	we're looking at going about eight kilometers per second.
2770410	2776630	But when I talked about that racetrack, the bigger the racetrack, the more energy,
2776630	2779110	and we're talking about mechanical energy here.
2779110	2781410	The bigger the racetrack, the more energy.
2781430	2786170	So if I want to go higher, I'm gonna have to throw the baseball harder, right?
2786390	2789830	So in low earth orbit, I'm going about eight kilometers per second.
2789830	2793510	But as I go out to higher orbit, let's say all the way to geostationary orbit,
2793510	2799050	which is 36,000 kilometers away, I'm now only going about three kilometers per second.
2799250	2800690	Okay, well, where'd the energy go?
2800690	2803010	Well, this is, it's all potential now, right?
2803010	2807690	I don't have the same kinetic energy, I have more potential energy,
2807690	2810330	because it costs me energy to get out there.
2810330	2813110	I have to spend energy to get higher, right?
2813110	2815670	And I climb out of that gravity well.
2816510	2823070	But so that my, so I need to get out to geostationary orbit from low earth orbit,
2823070	2828210	costs you about four kilometers per second, extra delta V,
2828210	2831210	to go from low earth orbit all the way to geostationary.
2831210	2835530	Turns out that's about the same amount as it takes to go to the moon.
2836150	2840230	To go from low earth orbit to the moon is pi kilometers per second.
2840230	2843230	So it's 3.14 kilometers per second, give or take.
2843610	2846790	And then to get into lunar orbit is about another 800 meters per second.
2846790	2850570	So it's about four kilometers per second to go from low earth orbit to the moon,
2850570	2852290	about the same as geo.
2852290	2855250	And going to Mars is only about five and a half.
2855310	2859630	So it's not exponential. And it's not really linear either.
2859630	2865090	But one of my favorite science fiction writers, Robert Heinlein once said,
2865090	2867730	low earth orbit is halfway to everywhere.
2868210	2872030	If you, it costs you about eight kilometers per second to get into low earth orbit.
2872030	2875090	If you have another eight kilometers per second available,
2875090	2878790	you can go anywhere in the solar system eventually, right?
2878790	2883030	It might take you nine years to get to Pluto, but you'll get there, right?
2883030	2886110	And so it's all about the gravity, you know.
2886110	2888230	So, you know, if you live, you know,
2888230	2890170	there's certain parts of the country and parts of the world,
2890170	2895890	when you ask people how far something is, they tell you in time, not in distance, right?
2895890	2897550	So it's all about how you think about it.
2897550	2900470	So in space, the distance is not so important.
2900470	2902030	It's about the energy, right?
2902030	2906630	And we'll use that delta V as our kind of coin of the realm there.
2906790	2909990	So that delta V then is, you know, depends on the orbit.
2909990	2913170	And so the low earth orbit is about eight kilometers per second.
2913170	2917010	As I said, if you go higher, this number goes down.
2917010	2919030	About three kilometers per second.
2920130	2922590	So it's all about trading the energy, though.
2922590	2926130	This is the conservation of mechanical energy.
2926130	2928950	So just like being on a swing, right?
2928950	2931090	So when you're going low, you're fast.
2931090	2932750	And when you're going high, you're slow.
2932830	2938790	So I'm trading kinetic energy for potential energy here, right?
2938790	2943110	So at the high point of the orbit, which we call apogee, I'm going slowest.
2943110	2946450	At the low point, we call perigee, I'm going fastest.
2946450	2949070	But my total energy is the same.
2949390	2950710	Energy is conserved.
2950710	2955790	Energy is a conservative field, which means whatever energy you start with, you end up with.
2955790	2960090	Which is nice, because that means if I tell you the energy of the orbit,
2960090	2963810	of the satellite at any one spot, I know it at every spot.
2963810	2968370	So I don't have to continuously track stuff in orbit.
2968370	2971890	I really probably couldn't do that, even though I wanted to in a lot of cases.
2971890	2975910	Which is good news, because that means I only have to track it for a little bit.
2975910	2980070	And if I know that energy, it's going to be the same all the time.
2980070	2982250	So that's a big advantage for that.
2982710	2986690	The other thing that's conserved in my orbit is angular momentum.
2986690	2988770	So angular momentum is a vector quantity.
2988770	2993670	So if you wrap your right hand around the direction of the orbit,
2993670	2996210	it'll tell you the angular momentum vector.
2996410	2998850	So you can see that in this animation.
2999730	3003730	What that means is that orbit plane is fixed in space.
3003730	3009830	The Earth is rotating underneath me, but that plane is fixed with respect to the stars.
3009930	3013570	So you see that angular momentum vector, that big arrow pointing out there,
3013570	3016310	that's orthogonal to that orbit plane.
3016790	3021750	But the plane itself is fixed in space, and the Earth is rotating underneath me.
3021750	3023890	That's a key thing to try to visualize.
3024650	3027810	It's hard to imagine something being fixed in space,
3027810	3031310	but that is because of angular conservation of angular momentum.
3031310	3035870	And that's important in terms of what I can see when I'm going around.
3035870	3038070	So as I'm going around, this is animation.
3038070	3040450	This is not an artist's conception.
3040450	3048550	This is using a simulation tool called System Toolkit by a company called Analytical Graphics.
3048550	3051390	We're an educational partner, so that's my advertising for those guys.
3051390	3053150	But they make a neat tool.
3053150	3058050	And that tool helps us understand the behavior here.
3058050	3063270	The circles you see represent different things that I can look at.
3063270	3065950	So that big circle, that outer circle,
3065950	3069670	represents everything I can see out to the true horizon.
3070030	3072850	And this satellite is in a 700-kilometer orbit.
3072850	3075910	The littler circle represents a field of regard
3075910	3079530	for what we call an elevation angle of about 60 degrees.
3079530	3082490	That big circle is an elevation angle of zero degrees,
3082490	3084290	basically looking along the horizon.
3084290	3087250	As I go up to about 60 degrees, I get this circle.
3087250	3092270	And then when I look down with my camera, you see that little itty-bitty soda straw.
3092670	3097170	That's what I can actually image with my high-resolution camera.
3097170	3102330	Typically, these high-resolution imagers only have about a degree or so field of view.
3102350	3106610	That means it's going to take me a long time to image the whole Earth.
3106710	3113450	So that swath then is telling me how much of the Earth I'm covering on a given pass.
3113450	3116430	And it's also going to tell me when I can see the satellite,
3116430	3118430	when the satellite can see me.
3118430	3122410	These are the opportunities I have to interact with that satellite.
3122790	3126910	So as that satellite's going over, imagine that we're tracing a line on the Earth, right?
3126910	3129410	So we're going to call this the ground track.
3129410	3135570	So as I'm going around the Earth, the yellow there is the equatorial plane, just for reference.
3135870	3140230	So as I'm going around the Earth, notice that the satellite stays in its plane,
3140230	3144190	and the Earth is rotating underneath that plane,
3144190	3151050	which means I'm basically doing like a spiral cut, if you will, of the Earth as I'm going around.
3151530	3157790	And so if I'm on the ground and I want to see that satellite, I have to wait for it to pass over me,
3157790	3162550	or think about another way, me to rotate underneath its orbit plane, right?
3162550	3164190	Depends on how you want to think about it.
3164190	3165910	And that creates our ground track.
3165910	3171250	So we have a static map, because it's hard to move a map, so we just have a map.
3171250	3173610	And we have our guy standing down there in South America.
3173610	3178210	So when the satellite crosses the equator on its first orbit, let's say,
3178210	3183110	the person could look over and see the satellite to his east.
3183290	3187190	Now imagine it's a low Earth orbit satellite, has a period of about 90 minutes.
3187190	3192070	Now the Earth is going to rotate 22.5 degrees in 90 minutes, 15 degrees an hour.
3192070	3195090	That means the next time the satellite passes the equator,
3195090	3200090	from the person's standpoint, the satellite will now be to his west, okay?
3200090	3202390	So the satellite stayed in the same plane.
3202390	3205590	The Earth rotated underneath the orbit plane, right?
3205590	3209990	So and probably the next orbit on the third orbit, it'll be beyond the horizon,
3209990	3212450	and you won't even be able to see it, right?
3212450	3217090	So this is telling us when I can access that satellite to, you know,
3217090	3219930	have it take pictures of me, have me talk to it,
3219930	3224370	or if I was trying to do something to it, when I could even have that opportunity.
3225150	3229090	So then different orbits will have different ground tracks.
3229090	3231870	There's things that we can adjust on the orbit.
3231870	3233610	We call their orbital elements.
3233850	3236610	And one of those is the size of the orbit.
3236610	3239070	And the bigger the orbit, the longer the period,
3239070	3241730	the longer it takes to go once around the orbit.
3241730	3244870	So here you see different orbits, A, B, C, D, E.
3244970	3247770	And notice A has a period of 2.7 hours.
3247770	3249710	B is a period of 8 hours.
3249710	3251710	C is a period of 18 hours.
3251730	3254730	And E is a period of about 24 hours.
3255230	3256910	Notice what's happening to the ground track.
3256910	3259490	The ground track is getting scrunched together.
3259490	3261210	That's our technical term, scrunched.
3261210	3265430	We're getting scrunched together until I get to orbit D,
3265430	3267390	which ends up being a figure eight.
3267610	3270610	So orbit D, the period is about 24 hours.
3270610	3274190	So we say it is synchronized with the Earth's rotation.
3274190	3276450	In other words, it is geosynchronous.
3277010	3278120	Now, A, B, C, D...
3278670	3281630	A, B, C, and D have the same inclination.
3281630	3285410	So inclination is the angle of the orbit with respect to the equator,
3285410	3286510	if you want to think of it that way.
3286510	3290630	If I was orbiting around the equator, we'd say we have an inclination of zero.
3290630	3294670	If I was orbiting around the poles, we'd say you have an inclination of 90.
3295470	3299690	And in the case of A, B, C, and D, they all have an inclination of 50.
3299750	3303110	And I can tell that by looking at the highest point,
3303110	3305350	the highest latitude that it reaches.
3305350	3307070	You see over here the high latitude.
3307190	3309310	I'm glad it was 50 north, 50 south.
3309330	3312130	So that's telling me the inclination is about 50 degrees.
3313110	3315350	And then look what happens to orbit E.
3315350	3319890	Now I slink the inclination, so it now is going around the equator.
3320090	3325890	And so now the ground track for orbit E is a dot on the equator.
3325890	3329370	So it is now stationary with respect to that spot.
3329370	3331830	So we call it geostationary.
3331830	3334210	It is orbiting. It's going three kilometers per second,
3334210	3337610	but it's orbiting at the same rate that the Earth rotates.
3337610	3342690	So that gives me that perception of it being always over the same spot.
3342690	3346370	It's orbiting exactly the same rate at which the Earth is rotating,
3346370	3349430	which is why it seems to hover over that same spot.
3349430	3351010	But it's going three kilometers per second.
3351010	3353010	It's not hovering by any means.
3353190	3356550	So those different ground tracks give me different opportunities
3356550	3358770	to access the different orbits.
3358810	3360010	So here's an example.
3360010	3362410	This is the actual International Space Station.
3362670	3365890	You can see it going around in orbit, its ground track.
3366110	3370030	And so you can see the trace it makes on the globe and then the ground track.
3370030	3372530	So it has an inclination of 51.6 degrees.
3373210	3376530	That's because they had to launch pieces of it out of Russia.
3376970	3380490	And the lowest inclination Russia could reach was 51.6
3380490	3382850	because they launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan.
3383930	3387150	Would have been easier for us if it had been launched everything from Florida,
3387150	3388570	but that's another story.
3388870	3390650	So that's our ground track.
3390650	3392390	This is the International Space Station.
3393490	3394310	This is what...
3394310	3395130	Oh, go ahead.
3395130	3396490	Can I ask a question about that?
3396490	3401250	So is it because you're closer to the equator, you get more spin from the Earth?
3401250	3402670	Is that why Florida is better?
3402690	3407150	Well, yes, that's a short answer.
3407590	3411610	So when we were launching everything from the shuttle,
3411610	3416910	if we were to launch due east from Florida, we get maximum effect of the Earth's rotation.
3416910	3421430	But because we had to launch from Florida into 51 degrees,
3421430	3425750	which means we had to go somewhat northeast, we lost capability.
3426370	3430470	And they ended up having to completely redesign the external tank of the shuttle
3430470	3435250	to remove 8,000 pounds of weight so that they could get the stuff into orbit.
3435250	3439310	It's quite a heroic tale we could go into offline.
3439310	3440570	But it all came...
3441090	3442270	It's amazing.
3442270	3446590	So politics drove orbital mechanics, which drove technology.
3446590	3447990	It was pretty amazing.
3447990	3450350	But that's the way the world works sometimes.
3450630	3452430	But yeah, great question.
3453690	3456370	So here's our geostationary satellites.
3456370	3460010	So what you'll notice here, a couple of things.
3460010	3463650	One geostationary satellite cannot see the entire Earth.
3464090	3468110	In fact, to cover the entire equator, you need three satellites,
3468110	3470230	and then you get overlapping coverage.
3470330	3475930	But a geostationary satellite can only see up to about 70 or 80 degrees latitude.
3476190	3479510	So you end up with this triangle on the North Pole and the South Pole
3479510	3483230	that a satellite from GEO cannot see.
3483230	3485910	Or said another way, if I'm on the North Pole,
3485910	3488890	I can't talk to a satellite in geostationary orbit.
3488890	3491010	So if you have a direct TV dish,
3491010	3494630	and you're planning to move into the North Pole to visit Santa Claus,
3494630	3496710	don't take your TV dish with you.
3496710	3500310	I don't know what Santa Claus does, but you cannot get direct TV.
3500730	3504350	So for the most part, we don't care,
3504350	3507510	because there's not that many... nobody lives up there anyway.
3507510	3511390	However, there are military missions that do care.
3511390	3514110	And then we all use a different orbit called ammonia orbit
3514110	3519450	or highly elliptical orbit that can cover those high latitude regions.
3519610	3522150	But I didn't include an example of that.
3522150	3523890	But if you want to talk about that, we can.
3525550	3527350	So quick overview then.
3527350	3528390	This is orbital mechanics.
3528390	3532910	There's how we calculate some of those things.
3532910	3536790	I had to put in a second order nonlinear vector differential equation
3536790	3538910	just to see if anybody was paying attention.
3539170	3542950	But a little bit here of how we solve that equation.
3542950	3545550	We can talk about in more detail if you want in the break.
3546510	3550390	But I want to get to operations and then we'll pull up our poll.
3550390	3553330	So remember, we have these things called mission operation systems,
3553330	3557090	which are all the people, processes, and things need to do missions.
3557090	3561230	So we have manufacturing, launch, and things like our mission control center,
3561230	3563110	which you're used to seeing on TV.
3563530	3568210	And then we have our communication architectures,
3568210	3570970	which are all those links that move the data around.
3570970	3573670	I said space is all about moving the data.
3573670	3577650	So I have ground stations and control centers and I have relay satellites.
3577650	3580370	All that's happening to help me move the data.
3580390	3582830	And I have various methods of doing that.
3582830	3586630	So there are various networks for helping move that data.
3586630	3590030	So on the top, we see the Air Force Satellite Control Network,
3590030	3593630	which I guess could now be called the Space Force Satellite Control Network.
3593630	3595130	I'll never be able to say that.
3595590	3600010	And it has sites all around the world they use for talking to satellites.
3600010	3605370	They talk to, what, about 450 different satellites a day, if I recall.
3606150	3609970	That's the Air Force network. There's a Navy network. There's an Army network.
3609970	3611630	There are commercial networks.
3611630	3614110	There's a commercial network called Universal Space Network.
3614110	3616670	And they have sites all over the world that you can rent,
3616670	3619790	basically, by the minute to talk to your satellite.
3620210	3623310	Then NASA has a deep space network you see there on the bottom.
3623950	3627530	They have three sites in California, Madrid, and Australia.
3627530	3631850	And then NASA has something called the Tracking Data Relay Satellite Systems,
3631850	3636730	which are satellites in geostationary orbit that are used to talk to satellites in low-Earth orbit.
3636730	3640390	So if you see video coming from the International Space Station,
3640390	3642470	it's probably coming through TDRS.
3642470	3644350	So that's how they relay data.
3644350	3647730	So all of that represents really critical infrastructure.
3647930	3650070	Without those, you can't run your mission.
3650070	3655350	You got to have those to talk to your satellite and your satellite to talk to you.
3655350	3658250	So those are important parts of the problem here.
3658250	3662230	And then we have various operational activities we have to accomplish.
3662230	3665370	So there's nine different activities shown in this cartoon.
3665530	3668950	The one you're probably most used to thinking about is flight control.
3668950	3671850	You see upper right there, you see people sitting at a console,
3671850	3674750	you know, with a headset on, you know, managing the mission.
3675030	3677470	But that's really just the tip of the iceberg, right?
3677470	3679450	You have people doing planning.
3679450	3681230	You have people moving the data.
3681230	3683770	You have people doing tracking, maintenance and support,
3683770	3687750	spacecraft support, mission data archiving, all that, right?
3687750	3692570	All of these are things that happen to make operations effective.
3692730	3696310	And a key part of that is that mission data delivery and data processing, right?
3696310	3698950	Because it's all about moving the ones and zeros.
3698950	3701610	And these are expensive ones and zeros, right?
3701610	3704730	If I'm collecting data on what's happening on Mars,
3704730	3706770	that's cost me a lot of money to get that data.
3706770	3708290	So I want to get that data.
3708290	3710870	So I have to have the data generators in space
3710870	3712970	and then have the data analyzers on the ground.
3712970	3717650	And we need to make sure we have the tools in place to do that.
3718090	3723530	And we have a lot of trade-offs to make in terms of what we do in operations planning.
3723530	3728150	On one hand, we'd love satellites to just take care of themselves, be 100% autonomous.
3728190	3731870	On the other hand, we maybe have invested a billion dollars in that satellite.
3731870	3736490	We don't really want it to just go wandering around the solar system on its own,
3736490	3737990	you know, without supervision.
3737990	3740950	So there's a trade between spacecraft autonomy
3740950	3743910	and how many people we have on the ground.
3743930	3745750	And people on the ground are expensive.
3745750	3749370	For every person you have sitting in a seat on a console,
3749370	3751850	you probably had to hire five people.
3752050	3754610	Because by the time you, you know, have three shifts a day
3754610	3758970	and then people take vacations and they need training, you know, it adds up.
3758970	3764310	So for long-term missions, more than half your mission cost can be in operations.
3764570	3765750	Was there a question?
3769920	3770800	Okay.
3771260	3773380	And then, of course, anomaly response, right?
3773380	3777660	So if I have a CubeSat that I built, you know, a university built and it has a problem,
3777660	3781500	you know, I can get around to fixing it next week and nobody's going to care that much.
3781520	3784700	But if GPS has a problem, I probably need to fix it right now
3784700	3787760	because we've got, you know, the whole world to pay on.
3787760	3791560	So that and, you know, understanding the state of health
3791560	3794420	and understanding the new hardware and software that I'm flying
3794420	3798920	are all parts of the trade-offs I have to do in mission operations.
3799600	3801180	So here are the key tasks again,
3801180	3803680	just as a review of what we have to do in mission operations,
3803680	3807280	there's nine key tasks and the trade-offs that go with that.
3807340	3811300	And then these are the takeaways from a cybersecurity lens.
3811300	3814420	First of all, you know, getting to space is hard, right?
3814420	3816720	Eight kilometers per second, not easy.
3816940	3822520	Orbital mechanics inherently limits some of the things we can and can't do for space operations
3822520	3826540	and when you can even get an opportunity to talk to the satellite.
3826720	3830400	And finally, there's a lot of things going on in mission operations.
3830400	3833740	And that creates a fairly large attack surface.
3834080	3836660	You know, again, people, processes, and things that I can get into
3837160	3840900	often spread all over the world that I have to be concerned about.
3840900	3847600	So all of these are important things for us to consider from a cybersecurity and cyberspace lens.
3848340	3852560	I had a question here, does translation introduce significant orbital effects?
3852560	3854580	What do you mean by translation?
3856780	3859460	IRPIN, I don't know how you say your name there.
3862020	3865140	Can you clarify what you mean by translation in your question?
3871020	3873760	I'll have to come back to that again.
3873760	3877780	So it's in the chat, you say, does translation introduce significant orbital effects?
3877780	3879360	I don't really do that.
3879360	3880600	Oh, no, you're still there.
3880780	3884120	IRPIN, if you can, sorry, the Earth's moving around the sun.
3886980	3890720	No, the Earth is, you know, if I'm in orbit around the sun,
3890720	3896520	the fact the Earth is moving around the sun does not create any orbital effects on the orbit itself.
3896520	3902020	Now, the sun can have an impact, gravitational impact on my spacecraft.
3902020	3904700	We call that a gravitational perturbation.
3904760	3906020	The moon as well.
3906020	3912380	So if you see out of geostationary orbit, we have these sun-moon effects that actually impact
3913120	3917620	the spacecraft's ability to stay within the box that's been assigned.
3917620	3923140	And so you have to spend a little bit of energy every year to stay within your box,
3923140	3929160	because if you just leave it alone, the sun and the moon will start to move you outside the box.
3929160	3930900	And we don't want to be outside the box.
3930900	3932880	We spend a little energy to do that.
3935260	3937340	So Matt asked about CubeSat.
3937340	3942820	So CubeSat was a standard that was invented about 20 years ago
3942820	3946420	by some folks out at Stanford and Cal Poly.
3947080	3950300	And these guys, and they're still in business today.
3950300	3951620	I know the guys.
3951620	3958480	They just decided one day that they were going to define a CubeSat to be 10 by 10 by 10 centimeters.
3958480	3962560	They just said, okay, 10 is a nice round number in centimeters.
3962920	3965060	And so that became a CubeSat standard.
3965060	3969020	Of course, that's a 1U CubeSat, 10 by 10 by 10.
3969020	3972360	And you can make 2U, 3U, 9U.
3972360	3976300	People are doing 26U, at which point you become stupid.
3976580	3981060	But the nice thing is what happened, it became kind of a self-licking ice cream cone
3981060	3986340	in that this became a standard size satellite for a tiny little satellite.
3986340	3988900	And people then created abilities to launch those.
3988900	3991460	And so now if you want to launch a satellite,
3991460	3994320	there are a number of companies that will launch CubeSats for you
3994320	3997440	as long as you follow the CubeSat standard.
3997440	4002440	And it's usually 1, 2, or 3U is the most common that you see.
4002440	4007480	And if you stick to that standard, then folks like NanoRacks can get you launched in six months.
4007480	4010500	And the cost is getting down to the point that it's...
4010500	4013880	that literally high schools are launching their own satellites.
4014580	4017260	So it's... and that... it makes, of course,
4017260	4020300	now we have this massive proliferation of small satellites,
4020300	4023080	which creates other problems that we'll talk about.
4023080	4027780	It's really lowered the barrier to entry for a lot of organizations and countries
4027780	4031280	and even schools to build their own satellites.
4031280	4035500	And that's obviously a good and a bad thing, depending on who you ask.
4035820	4038160	Did that answer your question, Matt, on that?
4038160	4041300	Yeah, yeah, it did. How much... you said it was getting cheap.
4041300	4043200	How much does it cost to actually launch one?
4043900	4048180	Launch, I think last time I checked for about a 1U.
4048360	4052100	And, you know, there's a lot of it depends when it comes to the price tag.
4052100	4056540	It was in the $50,000 to $100,000 range, I want to say.
4057920	4063200	And the CubeSat itself, you want to build one that will actually work for, you know,
4063200	4068060	more than a day, you're going to end up spending $100,000, probably anyway.
4068580	4072740	So, yeah, a couple hundred K, you can get a reasonable CubeSat
4072740	4075560	with a payload that actually can do something.
4076660	4082620	Which, you know, from millions to hundreds of thousands is pretty good.
4083040	4086220	And you can, from somebody, you might be able to do it cheap.
4086220	4088480	That's if you actually wanted to do something.
4088480	4092100	If you just want to build a toy, you can go cheaper than that.
4092100	4095780	But people are usually going to go to the trouble, they kind of want it to work.
4097120	4098960	That was cool, thank you, that was perfect.
4099520	4102440	All right, let's pull up the poll here.
4105670	4107050	Let me launch the poll.
4107050	4110450	While I launch the poll, if anybody has any other questions,
4110450	4112190	I guess that's some good ones there.
4114810	4118230	So go ahead and answer the poll and then we'll,
4118230	4122210	if you don't have any other questions, we'll start up in about five minutes.
4122210	4124970	So take the poll, take a stretch.
4125350	4129590	And then when we come back, we're going to focus on threats.
4129590	4134970	So we'll look at the natural environment and the human environment in terms of threats.
4134970	4139510	So if you thought you wanted to be an astronaut, be ready to be disappointed.
4139830	4140730	Any questions?
4140730	4141790	Is there a question?
4146680	4151420	All right, so we'll start up again in a minute or two.
4258100	4262780	All right, getting there with all the poll answers.
4262780	4264540	I'll just give you another minute or so and then we'll
4265420	4267740	review that and then start into our next topic.
4298350	4300350	All right, let's see where we ended up.
4300350	4306310	All right, so how fast you need to be going?
4306530	4308610	Eight kilometers per second.
4308610	4311150	Not 8,000 kilometers per second, that'd be pretty dang fast.
4311350	4313210	Not the speed of light for sure.
4314010	4318410	The speed of light is how fast you'd have to be going to go into orbit around a black hole.
4319030	4323670	But to orbit the Earth, you only need to go on eight kilometers per second.
4325610	4329710	Can you see any ALEO satellite from any spot on Earth at any time?
4329710	4331430	No, no, you can't.
4331430	4337530	So again, the key there was low Earth orbit satellite because low is pretty low, as we're
4337530	4338510	going to see.
4339150	4344490	And so you can only see it certain times of the day, maybe only a couple of times a day,
4344490	4345870	depending on where you are.
4347150	4350250	A geostationary satellite definitely cannot see every spot on Earth.
4350250	4355850	You can only see about a third or so of the Earth at any given time, not even quite a third.
4356310	4361410	So that means we need multiple geosatellites to provide full coverage.
4362090	4367070	So if a bad guy wants an opportunity to covertly contact your satellite, they're going to have
4367070	4369650	to wait until that satellite passes over them.
4369650	4376490	Now they could bounce something through another ground station anywhere.
4376930	4381750	But if I'm trying to do it directly, I have to wait for it to pass overhead.
4381910	4385510	And then opportunities to threaten space ops, all of the above.
4385510	4386350	Everybody got that.
4386350	4391170	So pretty big threat surface there that we have to concern ourselves with.
4392050	4393350	So good stuff.
4393630	4394490	All right.
4397710	4400370	So who wants to be an astronaut here?
4405120	4406840	Who wants to be an astronaut?
4409640	4412500	What if I could just... you didn't have to go through all the training.
4412500	4414140	I would just get you into space.
4414180	4415460	Yeah, sounds great.
4417240	4418440	All right.
4419280	4424060	Well, after we go through this section, let's see if that's still the case.
4424060	4429320	All right, so here we're going to look at threats.
4429320	4431840	We're going to look at natural threats and man-made threats.
4432060	4435320	As we're going to see, the natural threats are bad enough.
4435400	4439880	And we don't need to give me human threats because we've got enough to deal with, it turns out.
4440000	4442720	So we want to look at both kinds, though.
4443140	4447920	And the natural threats especially are important because about a quarter of all anomalies
4447920	4452680	in spacecraft experience are a direct result of the natural environment.
4452680	4457800	So you can read all the different things that have happened over the years to different satellites
4457800	4460220	because of the natural environment.
4461540	4465560	There was a radiation storm that affected the STEREO satellites.
4466360	4472920	There was a coronal mass ejection that impacted the Dawn satellite when it was orbiting Ceres.
4473780	4478920	The Galaxy 15 one is interesting because, again, this was having to do with electrostatic
4478920	4482240	discharge because of a solar flare.
4482260	4484620	And that satellite lost its mind.
4485080	4489680	It was wandering around geostationary orbit out of control.
4489680	4494320	Some people on the ground could not send it any commands, but it was broadcasting.
4494320	4496720	It was on and it was broadcasting.
4496720	4501080	So it was interfering both physically and RF to other satellites.
4501080	4505620	Other satellites had to actually get out of the way of it.
4506400	4513440	And then eventually, it kind of accidentally pointed away from the sun and the battery
4513440	4517600	discharged and it did kind of a control-alt-delete and reset itself.
4517600	4518920	And then it was fine.
4518920	4521900	So that was a crazy one.
4522000	4527320	And then this animation in the top here, you see an impact of this is a collision between
4527320	4528660	two satellites.
4528660	4531080	One is a dead satellite, one is a live satellite.
4531300	4533860	And that caused a whole bunch of debris.
4533860	4538860	So these are all just issues that come up because of the space environment.
4539680	4543160	Because space is dangerous, and you got a lot to worry about up there.
4575410	4577470	So no beans on the space station.
4577470	4578470	Just keep that in mind.
4578470	4580490	Don't fart in a space suit.
4580950	4582810	But so where's space?
4582810	4585210	It turns out space is not very far away.
4585490	4589190	So about 100 kilometers, 60 miles straight up, if you could drive straight up.
4589730	4594690	There's something called the carbon line that kind of defines, you know, a generally
4594690	4597090	accepted beginning of space.
4597090	4601950	But there really is no internationally defined exactly where space begins.
4602310	4605750	In fact, if you're only at 100 kilometers, you couldn't stay in orbit because there's
4605750	4607070	just too much drag.
4607210	4612170	I need to be at least another 20 miles further before you can even have a hope of staying
4612170	4613290	in orbit very long.
4613290	4615390	And really, you want to be even higher than that.
4616020	4619970	So if any of you bought your tickets to ride on Virgin Galactic, I guess it's going to
4619970	4625130	be early next year now, 200,000 bucks, you're going to get a ride to space.
4625190	4628090	And they're going to define space as 100 kilometers.
4628090	4632030	So you're not going to go into orbit, you're going to go up and come down.
4632190	4635950	But hey, 200,000 bucks, you know, trillionaires, there you go.
4635950	4637490	So space isn't that far away.
4637490	4642550	So if you imagine the Earth were the size of a peach, the International Space Station
4642550	4644330	is just above the fuzz.
4644330	4646810	So the fuzz represents the atmosphere.
4646810	4648150	It's just a little fuzz.
4648290	4649670	And we're not that high up.
4649670	4651270	I mean, we're like right there.
4651270	4655270	In fact, it's not even a scale in that picture because it's too hard to draw it that close.
4655710	4657350	Really, really, really close.
4658850	4660270	That's to get to space.
4660270	4663070	Now, once I get in space, space is really, really, really big.
4663070	4668410	You know, so to try to put those distances in perspective, we tried to put some things
4668410	4669650	to scale here.
4669650	4676410	So imagine the sun were the size of a house, then the Earth is the size of a baseball.
4676410	4683010	So roughly what, about 8 centimeters or so in diameter, 10 centimeters in diameter.
4683350	4687810	But it's 1.2 kilometers away or, you know, three-fourths of a mile away.
4687810	4689710	That's how far away we are from the sun.
4689710	4693890	And the moon is the size of a large marble, about an inch in diameter.
4693890	4697050	And it's 10 feet away or three meters away.
4697050	4700470	And this is the one I have trouble wrapping my head around because, you know, you look
4700470	4703490	at the moon at night, it seems closer than that.
4703490	4705470	It seems bigger than that.
4705470	4710430	But it's really just optical illusion and how our brain processes stuff.
4710470	4715130	So the moon, you know, get a baseball and a marble out sometime and pace off the distance
4715130	4718310	and you'll just, you won't believe it, but it's true.
4718350	4722230	I've re-ran the numbers many times and that's how it works out.
4722970	4727890	And then you go to Pluto and Pluto is, you know, 20, almost 30 miles away.
4727890	4731850	And again, about the size of a marble, 30 miles away from the sun.
4731850	4738750	So, you know, the size of the solar system is a little hard for us to grasp really.
4738750	4741430	So huge distances involved here.
4742010	4745830	But once I get out to those distances, once I'm out there in space, there's a lot of nasty
4745830	4747330	stuff I have to worry about.
4747330	4749850	So there's six main things that we worry about.
4749850	4754850	Gravitational environment, the atmosphere or lack thereof and being in a vacuum,
4754850	4758290	the debris environment, and then radiation and charged particles.
4758290	4760950	So I'm not going to say much about the gravitational environment.
4760950	4765610	That tends to be a bigger issue for fluid handling and especially for humans.
4765950	4769490	But we're going to focus on the things that are the biggest threats to spacecraft,
4769490	4771250	which are all the other things.
4772070	4776190	So let's start with atmosphere, drag, and atomic oxygen.
4776190	4779270	In low Earth orbit, there's still a little bit of drag,
4779270	4782230	and there's still a little bit of atmosphere that's going to slow me down.
4783590	4786330	The atmosphere basically is like friction.
4786770	4790250	When I'm starting a spacecraft, it's going to rob energy from my orbit.
4790250	4793570	Remember I said the bigger the orbit, the more energy.
4793790	4796690	So if I take energy out of the orbit, the orbit gets smaller.
4796910	4798150	We're getting smaller.
4798150	4801690	Eventually it gets so small that I re-enter the atmosphere completely.
4802090	4805830	That atmosphere decreases exponentially with altitude.
4805830	4808370	Come visit us here in Colorado and get off the plane,
4808370	4812230	and you'll know immediately that the atmosphere has decreased a bit from sea level.
4812570	4815070	The atmosphere doesn't go completely away ever.
4815070	4818610	Well, not ever, but it goes up to...
4818610	4824110	NASA detected molecules of the atmosphere up to about out by the moon,
4824110	4826470	but those are like molecules they detected.
4827190	4833250	So in terms of low Earth orbit, we use 600 kilometers as kind of a rough rule of thumb.
4833250	4837030	In other words, if we're below about 600 kilometers,
4837030	4841550	then atmosphere drag is something we probably have to worry about.
4841570	4845290	If we're above 600, then probably it's nothing we need to worry about.
4845390	4848150	But again, it's not hard and fast, it's just roughly.
4848450	4851490	Because when I look at that drag equation there on the left,
4851490	4855450	the drag that I get from a satellite depends on a number of things.
4855450	4858770	One of the things it depends on is the velocity, how fast I'm going,
4858770	4861530	the drag coefficient, basically the shape,
4861530	4864350	and then the cross-sectional area of the spacecraft.
4864350	4866010	So I know most of those things.
4866010	4868390	What I don't know very well is the density,
4868390	4872290	because that density of the atmosphere changes day and night.
4872290	4875150	It changes with season, it changes with latitude,
4875150	4879030	and it changes based on what mood the sun happens to be in.
4879130	4883490	And the sun goes through these 11-year cycles of moods,
4883490	4886950	at least as long as we've been watching it, which isn't that long, really.
4886950	4890210	But so far, it's 11 years as far as we can tell.
4890210	4894110	And we're actually just coming off the latest solar minimum.
4894110	4898190	So the sun is always putting out these charged particles I'm going to talk about,
4898190	4899930	and we call the solar wind.
4899930	4902850	So these charged particles are always coming out from the sun.
4903150	4906450	And think of that as a constant breeze coming from the sun.
4906450	4910730	But the sun is going to get more active, less active over this 11-year cycle.
4910730	4914250	Right now, we're just coming off the solar min,
4914250	4918230	about ready to start back into the next high part of the cycle.
4919010	4922730	When the sun is not very active, the atmosphere contracts,
4922730	4924330	which means there's less drag.
4924330	4928650	When the sun is fairly active, the atmosphere expands, which means there's more drag.
4928650	4931590	So we've been going through a period of relatively low drag.
4931590	4936870	We're starting our period of relatively high drag over the next six to eight years.
4937770	4944910	In addition, when UV light hits oxygen molecules in the upper atmosphere,
4944910	4947590	they break apart into atomic oxygen.
4947590	4952370	Individual atoms of oxygen, which are very reactive.
4952450	4955070	Oxygen by itself, as you know, is very reactive.
4955070	4956790	That's why things rust.
4956950	4959910	But when I have atomic oxygen, it's even more reactive,
4959910	4962730	and that can cause damage to the surface of your satellite.
4962790	4965230	So these are issues of simply the atmosphere.
4965350	4968530	Again, generally issues below about 600 kilometers.
4968530	4970770	The International Space Station is at 400 kilometers.
4970770	4972950	So yeah, it has to worry about this stuff.
4972950	4975670	If we didn't do anything to the International Space Station,
4975670	4981030	at solar maximum, the International Space Station would re-enter in about three months.
4981410	4985290	At solar minimum, which is where we've been, it'll re-enter in a couple of years.
4985330	4989910	But it's a big difference between maximum and minimum in terms of how that impacts drag.
4990830	4992770	But for the most part, space sucks.
4992770	4993710	We're in a vacuum.
4993710	4996370	Because we're in a vacuum, we have other things to worry about.
4996410	4998650	One of the things we have to worry about is called outgassing.
4998650	5002610	So if you have a soda bottle, you shake up the soda bottle and open up the top,
5002610	5003950	you're going to hear the fizz.
5003950	5004770	Well, what's happening?
5005330	5008650	You're releasing pressure and the gas is escaping.
5008650	5013710	So the dissolved gas in the liquid is escaping because of the released pressure.
5013710	5016550	Same thing can happen in space with materials.
5016550	5020810	So if I have polymers or adhesives or anything like that,
5020810	5024990	they tend to, during manufacturing, they'll have alcohols and other
5025910	5027810	volatiles that'll get stored in there.
5027810	5030210	When I release the pressure, those things will come off.
5030210	5032630	We call that outgassing.
5034090	5039070	And in space, there's one really important law that governs everything we do,
5039070	5040910	and that's called Murphy's Law.
5041190	5043050	If you're from England, it's called Sod's Law.
5043050	5044170	Don't ask me why they're different.
5044170	5048490	But the laws are different, the guy's different, the law's the same.
5048490	5052170	And Murphy's or Sod's Law says that anything that can happen will happen
5052170	5053710	at the worst possible time.
5053710	5057770	And the corollary to that in space for outgassing is that outgassing will go
5057770	5061750	wherever you don't want it to go, which is probably on the surface of your
5061750	5063850	mirror or sensor or things like that.
5063850	5067210	We also worry about offgassing inside where the crew lives,
5067210	5069730	because the crew has to smell everything.
5069730	5073750	You know, if you ever bought a new car, then a car smells like a new car.
5073750	5075230	Well, what's new car smell?
5075230	5077810	It's outgassing plastic, right?
5077810	5080530	Now in your car, you simply roll down the window and you don't have to smell it
5080530	5081050	anymore.
5081050	5084510	But if I'm at the International Space Station and I have a smell like that,
5084510	5086530	I can't roll down the window, right?
5086530	5088270	There's not, that's not going to work for me.
5088290	5091310	So that becomes a hazard for astronauts.
5091310	5093790	They want to make sure they don't have anything smelly like that,
5093790	5096850	meaning they'll off-gas plastics or things like that.
5096910	5098970	We can also get cold welding in a vacuum.
5098970	5102690	This is where two pieces of metal can literally get fused together because we
5102690	5105790	get a weak molecular bond between the two pieces.
5106070	5110970	We can get tin whiskers that can form on tin solder, which is why we like to
5110970	5114830	have a bit of lead in the solder so we don't do that in space because that
5115570	5118950	crystallization can cause a failure of solder joints.
5118950	5123430	And probably the most problematic thing for being in a vacuum in space has to do
5123430	5124790	with heat transfer.
5124810	5128610	There are three ways to move heat, convection, conduction, radiation.
5130370	5135330	Convection is what's keeping you cool here in your room, air blowing around you.
5135830	5139770	Conduction, you feel when you stir your coffee with a metal spoon.
5139770	5143190	And then radiation is what you feel when you actually feel the heat coming off
5143310	5143970	a fire.
5143970	5147050	Well, in a vacuum, I can't conduct anything.
5147050	5149530	I don't have any air blowing around me.
5150070	5153950	So the only way heat's getting in and the only way heat's getting out of my
5153950	5156190	satellite is through radiation.
5156430	5161690	So you see on the right there, the bottom right, you see the radiator panels on
5161690	5163270	the International Space Station.
5163270	5164990	So they use ammonia loops.
5164990	5169090	So the ammonia flows around where the astronauts live, carries the heat, goes
5169090	5173650	through those panels where it is radiated into space.
5173650	5177170	And then it cools off the ammonia, and then the ammonia does another trip back
5177170	5178870	through where the astronauts live.
5178870	5183010	So we do testing in space using these chambers you see at the top, a thermal
5183010	5186970	vacuum chamber, to make sure we know how things will behave, spacecraft will
5186970	5188930	behave when we get up there into space.
5189410	5194150	So that thing on the front of your car that cools your engine, what's that
5194150	5194970	called?
5198310	5201870	What do you call that thing in the front of your engine that cools your engine?
5202950	5203690	Radiator.
5203810	5204690	Radiator.
5204690	5206650	How does it cool your engine?
5209290	5210750	Heat transfer.
5210930	5215510	Yeah, convective heat transfer, not radiative heat transfer.
5215510	5217750	That thing should be called a convector.
5217750	5222670	I'm on a campaign to change its name, because I'm tired of people calling it a
5222670	5222970	radiator.
5223110	5224850	It's a convector, right?
5224850	5229150	You're pumping fluid around the engine block, and then air blows over the vanes
5229150	5230390	and cools the fluid.
5230390	5231690	That is not radiation.
5231690	5233110	That is convection, my friend.
5233550	5237890	By the next time you go by, make sure you buy the convector fluid, not the
5237890	5238830	radiator fluid.
5238830	5241870	It's a little more expensive, but it's more precise.
5241990	5245870	Anyway, so that's an issue with being in a vacuum.
5246110	5249050	Another issue being in space is all the junk.
5249090	5251410	So here's the history of the junk.
5361780	5365220	It's important to note that each of those little blobs are not to scale.
5366580	5370440	So we're up to 20,000 objects.
5370460	5373040	In space that we're currently tracking.
5373040	5375120	So this is the box score.
5375120	5378520	This comes out quarterly, so this is the last one that came out.
5378520	5380840	So we're just over 20,000 objects.
5381960	5383800	Nancy, that's from AGI.
5383800	5385500	I think I got that off of YouTube.
5385760	5387020	You could Google it.
5387380	5389140	They may even have a newer one.
5389160	5391520	They put a new one out every once in a while, because you notice that one's about
5391520	5392600	four years old.
5394440	5399360	But 20,000 objects that are 10 centimeters or bigger.
5399360	5402080	So think softball size or bigger.
5402700	5405480	And that's a limit of what we're able to track.
5405480	5407900	So we have tracking capabilities on the ground.
5407900	5410960	So the U.S. Space Force is now in charge of keeping track of that.
5410960	5417540	We have a satellite space surveillance network of satellite of ground systems that track
5417540	5418880	that radar systems.
5419260	5425220	And currently the limit is about 10 centimeters in low Earth orbit and about beach ball size
5425220	5427440	out of geostationary orbit.
5427440	5430480	That capability is about ready to change.
5430480	5435320	The Space Force is about ready to bring operational a thing called the space fence, which means
5435320	5437340	they'll be able to track things smaller.
5437540	5440180	How much smaller depends.
5440880	5445540	But people are saying what's going to happen is that number is going to change by a lot,
5445540	5447200	maybe by an order of magnitude.
5448160	5452320	Just because we'll be able to see things that now we know we're sure are there, but
5452320	5453480	we can't see them.
5453480	5455460	So now we are blissfully ignorant.
5455460	5459380	But then we'll be able to start seeing them and we can't be blissfully ignorant anymore.
5459380	5464180	So now instead of 20,000 objects to see, we'll have 200,000 or more that we'll have to keep
5464180	5465240	track of.
5466060	5469020	And that just keeps continuing to proliferate.
5469020	5474780	There have been numerous satellites damaged by debris and numerous other satellites.
5475040	5479480	Maneuvering to avoid debris has become fairly routine.
5480400	5485120	Every time I have to move my satellite, I'm spending propellant that I'm never going to
5485120	5486180	get back.
5487120	5493060	It's interesting, you look at geostationary, we once worked out what propellant is worth
5493060	5495420	at geostationary orbit.
5495420	5499500	Because a geostationary satellite makes like $100 million a year revenue.
5499500	5505260	If you work out what the propellant is worth per gram, it's more expensive than plutonium.
5505660	5507880	I mean, it's way more expensive than gold.
5507880	5509900	It's more expensive than plutonium.
5510080	5515100	So if I have to spend some of those precious grams of propellant, I'm not going to be happy.
5515120	5519280	I'm going to have to dodge a piece of junk, you know what I'm saying?
5519320	5521940	But that's the situation that we're dealing with.
5523080	5525460	But the big dog in space is the sun.
5525460	5529020	So the sun is putting out a number of things we have to pay attention to.
5529020	5531660	First of all is electromagnetic radiation.
5531660	5535800	So the physicists, you know, they use this word radiation, and they're not always clear
5535800	5537000	about what they mean.
5537000	5542560	So I'm going to distinguish between electromagnetic radiation and ionizing radiation, aka charged
5542560	5543500	particles.
5543500	5547740	So for electromagnetic radiation, we mean light and heat, right?
5547740	5552260	And all across the electromagnetic spectrum, literally from X-rays and gamma rays all the
5552260	5553560	way up the radio waves.
5554260	5556880	You see the graph up there of the output of the sun.
5556880	5562560	Most of the sun's output at EM, not too amazingly, is right in the middle of the visible.
5562660	5566120	And that's a function of Wien's law, it turns out.
5566120	5569540	But you see, this is actually Planck's law plotted there.
5569540	5573300	But the peak of that curve is right in the middle of the visible.
5573500	5577440	Which is convenient for us because that's what we can see.
5577660	5582280	But the range is all the way from X-rays all the way up to radio waves.
5582760	5586480	So the infrared, of course, is going to cause heating.
5586480	5589140	The light we can turn into solar energy.
5589700	5592160	Ultraviolet can cause damage of our surfaces.
5592300	5594560	We can get radio interference from the sun.
5594560	5597860	The sun is actually very noisy from a radio standpoint.
5598720	5601480	And we actually get solar pressure.
5601480	5604240	Force from the sun, from light.
5604240	5607540	So light is made up of waves or particles.
5607540	5610740	Depending on what mood you happen to be in when you do the experiment.
5610900	5613540	And if it's a particle, we call that a photon.
5613540	5615960	Now, photons do not have mass.
5615960	5617680	Turns out they don't have volume either.
5617980	5620780	But they do have momentum.
5621840	5623880	That's a quantum thing.
5623920	5627700	So a photon can actually transfer momentum to you.
5627700	5628780	And it's not much.
5628780	5630700	It's like five newtons per square kilometer.
5630700	5633640	But if I have big old solar rays hanging out for my satellite,
5633640	5635740	that can be significant over time.
5635740	5640420	And if I had a really big sail, I could literally sail around the solar system,
5640420	5643200	harnessing the pressure of light as I did that.
5643860	5645420	So I have to worry about that.
5645420	5648320	But probably the bigger worry are the charged particles.
5648660	5652480	So by charged particle, I have to go back to the definition of an atom.
5652480	5655280	If you guys remember the Bohr model of an atom,
5655280	5657760	where in the nucleus you have a proton and electron.
5657780	5660660	Proton being positive and then the electron being negative.
5660660	5662920	Going around the outside there and the neutron neutral.
5663460	5665780	And you probably know the story about the two atoms.
5666020	5667400	Two atoms were walking down the road.
5667400	5670500	One fell down and his buddy helped him back up and said, are you sure?
5670500	5671700	Or he said, are you okay?
5671700	5674180	He says, no, I think I lost an electron.
5674320	5675160	He said, are you sure?
5675160	5676380	He said, yeah, I'm positive.
5676740	5678560	So that's how you know you lost an electron.
5679040	5684160	And neutron walked into a bar and the bartender said, for you, no charge.
5687860	5691780	Bartender said, we don't serve faster than light particles in here.
5691780	5693860	The tachyon walked into a bar.
5694120	5695900	So think about that one.
5695960	5698400	So I got these charged particles.
5698400	5701820	I have ions, which are positively charged.
5701820	5703800	And then I have electrons or negative.
5703800	5706040	And they're coming from the solar wind, which I said,
5706040	5708360	there's this constant breeze coming off the sun.
5708360	5710920	And then occasionally I get these big solar particle events.
5710920	5713440	It's like a gust of these charged particles.
5713440	5716360	I also get them coming from outside the solar system.
5716360	5718640	We call those galactic cosmic rays.
5718640	5722620	And then I get them concentrated in the Van Allen radiation belts
5722620	5724280	in the Earth's magnetic field.
5724280	5726760	So I kind of can't escape these things.
5726760	5728540	And if you're watching that video on the bottom,
5728540	5734380	you're seeing the sensors on the SOHO satellite start sort of fizzed out there
5734380	5737560	when it got hit by a big solar particle event.
5737560	5740080	So it affected the sensor there.
5740240	5743580	So these charged particles come in kind of two flavors.
5744440	5747900	But we're going to worry about low energy and the high energy.
5748940	5752060	Stuff and the low energy we'll call plasma.
5752200	5755180	So the plasma effects having to do with arcing,
5755180	5757760	the plasma effects are mainly going to be on the surface.
5757760	5763180	So arcing, electrostatic discharge, electromagnetic interference,
5763180	5765800	and re-attracting of contaminants.
5765800	5769280	Mostly this is going to be a problem at a geo, less so at LEO,
5769280	5770540	and mainly on the surface.
5770540	5776480	So this is an annoyance, but not something that's going to really be a big problem.
5776480	5777920	I just noticed Pete's question there.
5777920	5780460	Can an entire orbit be taken out with debris?
5782720	5784320	We're almost there.
5784320	5787580	You see that there were some popular orbits there,
5787580	5789860	geostationary, you actually see a ring.
5789940	5793560	And then in low Earth orbit, especially the sun synchronous orbits,
5793560	5797800	they're getting so popular that there's a lot of debris built up there.
5797800	5800520	Not to the point that that orbit is unusable,
5800520	5803660	but there's certainly more debris in some orbits than others.
5803660	5804480	That's for sure.
5804480	5806260	So thanks for that question, Pete.
5807540	5811740	Probably the most problematic issue has to do with the high energy charged particles.
5811740	5816660	And so every once in a while, the sun burps out a big bunch of charged particles
5816660	5821060	in a coronal mass ejection, shown in this animation in the upper right there.
5821160	5824040	Luckily, most of the time, it's not aimed at us.
5824060	5827120	But if it is, we got to be ready.
5827120	5831220	So we get this big coronal mass ejection, all these big gusts of charged particles.
5831280	5833880	Lucky for us, we have our shields up.
5834380	5838700	So our Earth's magnetic field protects us from that big blob of charged particles,
5838700	5840640	deflecting most of it.
5840660	5844380	But some of those charged particles get trapped within the field lines.
5844420	5848060	And then they go down and interact at the field generators,
5848060	5850020	where the Klingons always target down there,
5850020	5852640	and interact at the poles where the field lines come together
5852640	5856660	and cause excitation of the atmosphere, which causes the glow,
5856660	5858940	which is the Northern Lights and the Southern Lights.
5859080	5862820	Now, for our spacecraft, those charged particles, those high energy ones,
5862820	5865360	are going to go whipping through the surface of our satellite,
5865360	5869140	like it's not even there, and go right through our electronics.
5869140	5870920	And if it happens to hit the right spot,
5870920	5874300	if the little bullet happens to be in the wrong place at the wrong time,
5874300	5879420	then it can cause a latch up of one of the transistors on your microprocessor.
5879420	5883640	It can affect the ability for your semiconductor to carry charge.
5883860	5887780	And all that can have problems in terms of how your system's going to behave.
5887780	5891240	So there's immediate effects here we call single event phenomenon.
5891240	5892860	And they happen like that.
5892860	5894620	I mean, they're like little bullets going in
5894620	5898580	all the time that are causing issues with how our system is going to behave.
5898580	5903920	It can flip a bit, it can latch up a part of a transistor.
5904180	5905840	And there's sort of two effects here.
5905840	5909440	I think of them in terms of sunburn and skin cancer.
5909440	5914160	So the sunburns happening today, skin cancer is happening over many years.
5914160	5917280	So you get an immediate effect, and then you get a,
5917280	5921320	we call it total dose effect of accumulative degradation,
5921320	5924400	the ability for our semiconductor to actually work.
5924400	5929200	So at some point, it simply stops working after some number of months or years,
5929200	5933580	depending on the substrate material and depending on the orbit that I'm in.
5933660	5939000	That total dose then eventually causes my system to simply shut down, stop working.
5939080	5944520	And we can look for materials that are less susceptible,
5944520	5947020	but eventually everything succumbs.
5947020	5950640	We have not found a system that is 100%, you know,
5950640	5953360	unless you go back to iron core memory,
5953360	5956980	anything that's a semiconductor is eventually going to succumb,
5956980	5959600	at least as far as the technology we know now.
5959680	5961740	So we can use some shielding.
5961740	5963880	People usually guess lead is the best shielding,
5963880	5965600	but it turns out that's not the best.
5965600	5967820	It turns out hydrogen is the best shielding,
5967820	5969840	but hydrogen is not very convenient.
5970200	5973440	Water would be next best, but if I have humans on board,
5973440	5975660	I probably have water anyway, so that's good.
5975660	5979100	On the International Space Station, they actually use polyethylene,
5979580	5982500	high density polyethylene, a couple of inches of that.
5982600	5985680	The polyethylene is a hydrocarbon, so there's a lot of hydrogen there.
5985680	5988220	That's the hydrogen that acts as the shield for them.
5989100	5992020	But whatever I do, I have to build in air detection and correction
5992020	5993720	because this stuff is going to happen.
5993720	5996180	I mean, it's just price of doing business in space.
5996180	5998920	So I have to have some quite a bit of software overhead
5998920	6001400	to be constantly checking for these problems
6001900	6003740	because they're just going to happen.
6004260	6006800	So the natural environment's bad enough.
6006800	6010800	Now I got to worry about the unnatural environment, the human environment.
6010800	6012480	And these were the good old days.
6012480	6015400	The good old days, we just launched satellites and we talked to them
6015400	6018680	and everybody was cool and everybody was nice to each other
6018680	6022320	and we didn't have to worry and we barely had any software anyway,
6022320	6023560	so it didn't matter.
6024240	6025740	And that life was good.
6025800	6027780	That ain't the way it is anymore, right?
6027780	6029400	Now we have bad actors.
6029400	6031600	We're way more dependent on software.
6031600	6034720	And these bad actors are doing things like spoofing and eavesdropping
6034720	6036440	and denials of service.
6037260	6040740	All of these are things that we now have to be concerned about.
6041080	6043940	But we're not really prepared in the space industry.
6043940	6046120	So we have some challenges in our industry.
6046120	6048360	First of all, as we've just seen,
6048360	6050520	some of the problems that can happen in spacecraft
6050520	6055660	are hard to distinguish between a natural problem and an unnatural problem.
6055660	6057300	If I have a single event upset,
6057300	6060680	it may not immediately be obvious that that's, you know,
6060680	6063900	because of the natural environment or because somebody hacked me.
6064600	6067400	Also, space has suffered from a bit of, you know,
6067400	6069280	it-can't-happen-here mentality, you know,
6069280	6071280	where you tend to think we're, you know,
6071780	6074260	nobody's going to bug us, but, you know, we're special.
6074260	6076260	But of course, we're not that special.
6077080	6080840	And space has tended to be fairly conservative and flexible
6080840	6084800	and very non-agile in terms of adapting over time.
6084800	6086520	A bit complacent, we could say.
6086520	6090300	And we tended to view security as more of an afterthought than a forethought.
6091240	6093960	And part of it is because fixing things is difficult.
6093960	6095580	We can patch our systems.
6095580	6098240	We can even do, you know, new software updates.
6098240	6099520	But we're limited.
6099620	6101760	Basically, we can't change our hardware.
6101940	6104920	And we're limited in the ability of what we can do even to our software.
6104920	6108080	So we just can't react that fast.
6108300	6112420	The other issue is that the, you know, the attack surface just keeps growing.
6112420	6114320	We're relying more and more on software.
6114320	6116960	We have more and more distributed missions.
6116960	6118900	We have a lot more actors involved.
6118900	6122380	We have... our software tends to be more outdated,
6122380	6127340	because we in the space business tend to build missions that last sometimes for decades.
6127440	6131440	And so we're still using software from, you know, that nobody else has even heard of.
6131740	6136580	And then we have trouble, you know, removing that software at end-of-life kind of problems.
6137180	6139340	So that's the space environment issues.
6139340	6140880	Again, space isn't that far away.
6140880	6144200	We have a number of natural environment things we have to contend with.
6144200	6150340	Big one from upsetting spacecraft standpoint are the high energy charge particles,
6150340	6153720	which will cause a single event upsets and bit flips and things.
6154480	6158240	And from a cyber's perspective, what I want you to take away here that,
6158240	6160040	first of all, again, space is hard.
6160040	6162020	And space sucks because it's vacuum.
6162120	6166120	So it's hard enough to get things to work in space, you know, even on a good day,
6166120	6168340	because that natural environment is a pretty big threat.
6168340	6173980	And it's causing denial of service randomly already, you know, without any human intervention.
6174560	6180360	And some of those anomalies that could occur if, you know, if there was a nefarious actor,
6180360	6183320	we'd have a hard time immediately discerning the difference between
6183460	6186480	a natural attack and an unnatural attack.
6187140	6191540	And the other thing to take away is just how fragile spacecraft are, you know,
6191540	6198060	relatively minor hack, like, you know, causing a solar array not to point quite at the sun,
6198060	6202640	even if it was off by a few degrees, would decrease the amount of power it could produce,
6202640	6205120	which might decrease its ability to do its mission,
6205120	6208160	and on any number of things from a relatively smart area.
6209980	6213340	So Gretchen's asking a question here, in the vein of threats, human actions,
6213340	6217520	there are so many vulnerabilities to ground system, the support space that can be attacked.
6217520	6221260	What would cybersecurity hack look like in the ground infrastructure?
6221420	6224640	What would they get? And how could you protect against it?
6224940	6227960	We're going to tackle some more of that here in a minute.
6228020	6229900	Gretchen, thanks for that question.
6229900	6235920	But we're, as we saw in that previous section, there's, I listed nine different activities
6236540	6243440	for mission operations, and any one of those activities is a potential inroads for an attack.
6244160	6248540	And that, in terms of that, and because they all represent parts of the ground infrastructure
6249180	6253140	as well. And, you know, some of them more vulnerable than others, but
6253140	6258320	any one of those are potential inroads, because you have people, processes, and things
6258320	6264920	involved. And people can be a weak area there, and sometimes just the infrastructure we have,
6264920	6269780	because it's maybe antiquated or doesn't have the, you know, and we're running, you know,
6269780	6274220	legacy software from decades ago, we have more vulnerabilities in that respect.
6274220	6277020	So hopefully that answered your question.
6277780	6287000	So let's check in. Any other questions from that section before I pop up the poll?
6288560	6292940	So who still wants to be an astronaut after seeing the threats?
6296790	6300870	Who's changed their mind? Oh, Pete, you're still ready to go. Okay.
6300990	6305390	Wear your lead underwear. Oh, wait, I guess you better wear your hydrogen underwear.
6306870	6313250	Take a visit over an extended stay. Kilt. Okay, you're, yeah, that'll help you.
6313390	6318970	So astronauts will tell you, because we didn't really talk about human issues, but I mean,
6318970	6323410	it's scary to talk about what happens to humans, especially in the free fall environment. That's,
6323410	6327910	that's, that can be pretty bad. The astronauts will tell you they'll see flashes of light
6327910	6335250	in their eyes. So a charged particle goes through the eyeball, releases a photon, your retina can
6335250	6340770	detect a single photon. And they see these little light bulbs going off in their eyes at random
6340770	6348290	times, which is a bit of a freak out. So that's, that's an issue. We talked about shielding.
6349210	6356130	The, the, again, for human missions, we can use water. In fact, NASA talks about using,
6356130	6360870	creating like a storm shelter because these big solar particle events luckily don't last that long,
6360870	6366790	you know, days. So if you can get astronauts to hunker down underneath bags of water for a couple
6366790	6372890	of days, they'd probably be okay. But the radiation effects on humans is pretty, pretty critical to
6372890	6379550	look at because a round trip mission to Mars is a, is a lifetime dosage. NASA sets the dosage
6379550	6386050	limits based on age and gender. Women can take less dosage than men and older people can take
6386050	6390870	more dosage than younger people. So of course, the answer for going to Mars is to send old men
6390870	6395870	because you won't miss us anyway. And then you could argue about whether you should even bring
6395870	6403990	us back. So in terms of a safety issue, but there you go. Yeah. And so Terry's talking,
6403990	6411570	she, Terry, you want to say something about that JPL thing? Yeah, sure. So a couple of years ago,
6411570	6419170	JPL was hacked and they were hacked because there was a, an unattended, unauthorized little
6419170	6425630	Raspberry Pi, just a simple little computer hooked up to their network. And so an external
6425630	6431430	threat actor got in, actually came in through that Raspberry Pi or targeted it, was able to
6431430	6439310	crawl around their network for about 10 months and, and received about 500 meg of data about one
6439310	6444410	of the Mars missions. So that's just an example where, you know, you've really got to watch the
6444410	6450110	people in your network and what they are putting on your network. Yeah. And I guess be conscious
6450110	6455410	that, you know, all it takes is one slip up and somebody's just waiting for that slip up, you know,
6455410	6460870	in that case. You talk about gravity effects on humans. So quickly, there's three things with
6460870	6467870	gravity effects on humans, moans, groans, and stones. So the moans come from vestibular issues
6467870	6472670	where you just are space sick and you feel like crap because you're, you're just, you know,
6472670	6479490	motion sick. Bones comes from a lack of, you know, you know, force on your, on your bones,
6479490	6486110	so your bones lose, lose, lose mass. And, and then stones come from a fluid shift because you
6486110	6490190	get fluid that moves to your upper body because your, your legs keep pushing fluid into your
6490190	6494330	upper body, even though it doesn't need to. And you're, and you, you start offloading
6494930	6498450	liquid, which means you're going to be dehydrated, which can lead to kidney stones.
6498450	6503490	So all of that are issues with gravitational effects. Building rotating space stations would
6503490	6509010	be cool, but the, you know, you look at the mass of the entire International Space Station, you'd
6509010	6514070	need a couple times more of that mass to build something even close to big enough to be useful.
6514070	6518390	Because if it's a relatively small radius, people would just throw up if they're going around in
6518390	6522690	circles like that. So you need a pretty big radius. And I can't remember what the minimum radius is.
6522690	6529210	Somebody's studied that. But it's, it's like 50 meters or at least before otherwise you just
6529210	6536190	you the Coriolis would give you all kinds of vestibular issues. So it needs to be a pretty
6536190	6542470	big thing. So now we're not quite ready to build something that big yet. That'd be nice though.
6542950	6551850	All right, let me release the pole. Release the hounds. Release the pole. So we just did threats.
6555680	6562020	So let's go ahead and take this poll. And then we'll give you about five minutes or so to take
6562020	6566300	the poll. Then we'll review that we got time for a little stretch break. And then we'll
6566300	6574500	start back up at the at the bottom of the hour. So that should be 4.30 pacific time. And
6574500	6582200	all right. Yeah. And then so I guess my little has scheduled. That's good.
6583440	6589820	So we'll start back up at 4.30 pacific time. And then we'll pick up with vulnerabilities there in
6589920	6594220	a minute. So go ahead and take the poll. And then we'll check in and see how everybody did with that.
6827900	6834720	All right, let's see how we did here. So we have results.
6836540	6842660	So first question. Space is incredibly, amazingly, ridiculously far, far away.
6844700	6849920	Nope, pretty close, right? 100 kilometers. Drag affects all satellites in every orbit.
6853020	6860200	I guess you missed that one. So no, right? Remember we said 600 kilometers was under the
6860680	6865140	rule of thumb there. So we're above 600, then I don't need to worry about drag.
6865980	6869740	Below 600, then yeah, I do need to worry about drag. So maybe I misspoke there and
6869740	6873580	confused you on that one. So I said, yeah, there's atmosphere all the way up to the moon,
6873580	6880920	but not enough to worry about. But the 600 kilometers is sort of the line in the sand
6880920	6886180	there for us. So those bit flips are caused by the high energy charged particles are pretty
6886180	6892440	pretty much got that one. And yeah, the scary thing here is anomalous behavior by satellite
6892440	6898380	could be indistinguishable from a natural threat. So it's really hard to know right at first.
6898380	6904740	And then all of the above represent the cybersecurity challenges that we talked about.
6904740	6911760	And then key things there for denial of service was the TOS flood, the Internet of Things botnet
6911760	6918340	attack, and then ping flood type issues. So most of you did okay on there. All right.
6918340	6925820	So let me stop sharing that. So let's move to our last section. And then you want to stay tuned
6925820	6930580	because we're going to have our little cybersecurity challenge here at the end to see
6930580	6937060	how you do. So here we want to look at some specific areas of vulnerability, the RF systems
6937060	6943540	and data handling systems. So we're going to look at those pipes and those uplink and downlink pipes
6943540	6949780	that we talked about. We want to know how those pipes work. How do I set up a pipe? And that means
6949780	6955780	how do I maybe disrupt the pipe as well? So these pipes are fine-tuned things. We need to make sure
6955780	6959780	that they work correctly because it's all about moving the data. And then we'll look at the data
6959780	6965000	handling system. So I've got my little cartoon there of a computer and we've got some ones and
6965000	6970560	zeros there. If you stare carefully there, you see that my artist put a two in there. So I guess
6970560	6977100	that's a bit flip when that happened. So let's start with a communication system. So this is
6977100	6982200	the ears and the mouth of our spacecraft. So we have to listen for commands coming up from the
6982200	6988140	ground and we have to talk to send telemetry down to the ground. Along the way, we have to
6988140	6994140	turn that data into modulated information that goes on to the carriers we'll talk about. So we
6994140	7000120	have modulators and demodulators that work with that carrier signal that we'll look at to actually
7000120	7004640	move that data from where it needs to go. And then that data then connects up to the data handling
7004640	7011100	system as we'll see here in a little bit. So the key part here is these communication
7011600	7015840	architectures. So again, it's all about moving the data. So I have ground systems all
7015840	7020460	over the place. I showed you those Air Force Satellite Control Network and Deep Space Network
7020460	7024920	and that Universal Space Network. We have these ground stations all over the darn place
7024920	7031160	and we're moving data all over between them. Now, space to space and ground to space,
7031160	7036800	downlinks are going to be RF. And once it's on the ground, then we can move things around through
7036800	7042800	fiber. Fiber is actually a lot better than RF for a whole lot of reasons. But for space,
7042800	7046680	ain't no fiber up to the space, at least yet, until we can build that space elevator.
7046820	7051660	We're kind of stuck with RF links. And so that they create their own challenges and vulnerabilities
7052420	7058340	as we're going to see. So let's talk about how RF communication works, which means we have to
7058340	7063720	talk about how communication works. And I'm sure everybody, when they were a kid, got to play with
7063720	7070000	two cans and a string. And kind of unlike the cartoon in the top, the string needs to be tight.
7070000	7074280	So our scientists, they're not holding the string tight the way they need to, but for, you know,
7074280	7080820	artistic license there. So the guy on the right is going to talk into his cup and that's going to,
7080820	7086820	his voice is going to bounce on the bottom of the can and his voice will then get modulated
7087300	7095380	onto the string. Now the string is going to carry that vibration to the other person who's got the
7095380	7100580	cup up to her ear, and it's going to bounce on the bottom of her cup, where it'll be demodulated,
7100580	7106800	and then she's going to hear kind of whatever it was that he said. Okay. So RF communication,
7106800	7112540	the only difference is no string. In fact, it's really, it's the carrier that acts as the string,
7112540	7117760	as the carrier is where we're going to modulate our information onto. But we have to have that
7117760	7122440	carrier. So we have to have that string that goes from me to you, and that's how we're going to get
7122440	7127960	our information there. Now it turns out there's various ways to modulate that information onto
7127960	7134560	the carrier. In the space business, we tend to use digital communication, and there's three basic
7134560	7140240	ways you can think of to do modulation, two of which you have in your car, amplitude modulation
7140240	7146120	and frequency modulation. So our cartoon there shows a simple example of amplitude modulation,
7146120	7151540	where low amplitude means a zero, and higher amplitude means a one. I could do frequency
7151540	7156840	modulation, so every time I shifted frequency, that could be a zero or a one. In the space
7156840	7162840	business, we tend to use phase modulation, where every time we swap phase, we can go between a zero
7162840	7169600	and a one. So, you know, kind of pick your language, really. It turns in space, it turns
7169600	7174020	out that phase modulation is a little more forgiving, so we tend to use that more in space,
7174020	7178900	but there's, we could use the others if we wanted to, we just don't, they don't work as well. But
7178900	7185320	for, you know, for your car, it's fine, you know, we're fine. So various ways to do that. Now,
7185320	7189960	what we're trying to make sure happens is that we can have a conversation, right, between the
7189960	7194440	spacecraft and the ground, they need to have a conversation. And that conversation is no different
7194440	7198740	from what you, the conversation you want to have with your buddies when you're out, you know, out
7198740	7204180	at the restaurant or bar at night, back when we could go to restaurants and bars. Well, I'm sure
7204180	7209000	most of you remember being in a bar at one time in your life, and you're trying to have a
7209000	7212660	conversation with somebody on the other side. And there's a lot of things that we're going to
7213340	7219380	complicate that. First of all, you and your, whoever you're talking to, is helpful if you're
7219380	7222760	speaking the same language, right? If you're trying to speak to someone in a language they
7222760	7226960	don't understand, it doesn't matter how loud you talk. Most, well, of course, Americans know that
7226960	7232160	if you talk English loud enough, anywhere on earth, people will understand you. But that's not
7232160	7238300	usually the case. So we need to make sure we pick the right language. And we also need to be on the
7238300	7243240	right frequency. You know, so if I'm, if I'm using, you know, dog whistle frequency, you're not going
7243240	7249020	to hear me, right? So we, you know, let's pick with audio frequencies here. Distance is important.
7249020	7254980	If I'm too far away, you can't hear me. And data rate is important. If I talk too quickly,
7254980	7259460	you can't really understand me. You might hear me, but you won't really understand me.
7259460	7263720	So I have those things to play with. Language, frequency, distance, data rate, and then
7263720	7268120	environment. So if somebody's making a lot of noise, then I'm not going to be able to hear what
7268120	7272400	the other person's saying either. So all those things have to be balanced to make sure we have
7272400	7277660	effective communication. And what we're really after here is making sure that the signal is
7277660	7281220	greater than the noise. If the signal is higher than the noise, then you're probably going to
7281220	7285340	hear me. If the noise is greater than the signal, then you're probably not going to hear me.
7286500	7291260	And this gets tied up into what we call Fry's equation, which is for how we calculate
7291260	7295720	link budgets on all of these various links I just showed you. So it looks like a little
7295720	7299900	complicated equation, but it's really not that bad, because what it's really doing is implementing
7299900	7304900	the things that we just talked about. So instead of being in a bar having a conversation, now I'm
7304900	7310560	having a conversation between two dishes, as we show there on the bottom right. And so the same
7310560	7315620	things apply. I have to pick the right frequency, in this case the frequency of our carrier wave.
7315620	7320420	I have to pick the right language, which is the modulation. I'm worried about distance, which we
7320420	7326880	call space loss. I'm worried about the data rate. And I'm worried about noise. So all of those are
7326880	7331220	things I have to consider. And they're all packed into that equation there at the top. Because what
7331220	7337720	we're trying to do is ensure that for every bit, the energy is greater than the noise. So we call
7337720	7343900	energy per bit to noise ratio, or EB over NO. So energy per bit to noise ratio wants to be greater
7343900	7348740	than one. And that's going to be determined by a number of things. I have only a number of things
7348740	7354420	I can play with. Transmitter power, basically how loud I'm going to talk. Transmitter gain, how I
7354420	7363040	maybe direct what I say. The space loss, how close I am. The receiver antenna gain, how big the ears
7363040	7368620	are on the ground. And the data rate. The lower the data rate, the easier it is to get the message
7368620	7374860	through. So there are not that many knobs I can turn here. But these are the things that I have
7374860	7379900	to have all in place to make sure I have effective communication. So if I were to impact any one of
7379900	7386780	these in some negative way, I'm going to reduce my ability to communicate significantly. And we see
7386780	7393440	that already with things like Voyager. So Voyager keeps going and going and going. Energizer bunny,
7393440	7399200	right? Eventually the power on its radioisotope thermoelectric generator is going to give out,
7399200	7404900	I think, in about 20 years, they said. But even now, it's so far away, the space losses
7404900	7409520	are basically killing our ability to hear it. In fact, I don't think we're going to be able to hear
7409520	7414900	it in about another five or 10 years. Already, its signal is below the noise. And it has to keep
7414900	7419640	repeating itself over and over and over before we can finally pick the signal out of the noise.
7419880	7423800	But for something in low Earth orbit, we can't have it just keep repeating itself.
7423800	7428580	We want to hear it the first time if we can. So these are challenges that we have to face.
7428760	7434060	And the other challenges have to do with the limitations that we have for building up these
7434060	7439540	links. We have some physical limits that have to do with the atmosphere. So certain frequencies are
7439540	7443180	going to get attenuated by the atmosphere, especially some of the higher frequencies
7443180	7449260	that don't like going through rain very well. There's some technical limits in terms of just
7449260	7455080	how big of an antenna you can put on a satellite. But the biggest antennas flying right now are
7455080	7463620	about 15 meters. It's just hard to put in and that has to fold up like an origami and then unfold.
7464280	7469380	The Galileo spacecraft we show there in the illustration at the top, they went to Jupiter
7469380	7475940	back in the 90s. It had this high gain antenna that was supposed to unfurl like an umbrella,
7475940	7480200	but two of the ribs got stuck together. They think it was cold welding. So they could never
7480200	7485220	unfurl that high gain antenna. So they had to run the whole mission on the low gain antenna,
7485220	7490080	which they lost something like an order or two orders of magnitude less data rate
7490080	7495420	to be able to run the mission, which is problematic. So just by affecting that one
7495420	7501900	thing, you've impacted the mission greatly in terms of its ability to move data.
7502740	7505560	And of course, there's other technical limits to consider as well.
7505760	7512100	I can only generate so much power on board. And a lot of the stuff on the ground are already
7512100	7517100	built. The frequencies are already established. So there's just limits to what I can do.
7517100	7522120	And then of course, there's legal limits. You can't just wake up tomorrow and decide you're
7522120	7526760	going to start your own radio station, the FCC is going to come shut you down.
7526780	7531360	And the same goes in space, you can't simply launch a satellite and start broadcasting
7531360	7536460	willy nilly and whatever frequency you want, you have to get approval to use that. And the
7536460	7541020	approval comes from through the International Telecommunications Union. And that's fairly
7541020	7545240	highly regulated, which is a good thing. Otherwise, it'd be chaos up there.
7545900	7550220	So even though you might want to do certain things, if you don't have the frequency allocation,
7550220	7555660	you're going to be out of luck in terms of what you can actually do.
7558640	7566260	So the trade space then here ends up being, what can I do to affect my EV over NO? How can I make
7566260	7571480	sure that when I talk, people can hear me and understand me? Well, what can I do? Well, I can
7571480	7577340	talk louder, right? I can get more power out of my spacecraft. But there's going to be a limit,
7577340	7583360	and there's only so much power I have available from my solar panels. I can get a bigger megaphone,
7583360	7589420	right? But again, I can only put so big of an antenna on my spacecraft. I can try to get closer,
7589420	7594660	but hey, if I'm Voyager, I'm leaving the solar system, man. That's not an option. I can try to
7594660	7600440	get bigger ears on the ground. But most of our ground stations are already fixed. They represent
7600440	7605220	billions of dollars of investment. I'm probably not going to simply go build new ones necessarily.
7605220	7610580	I can try to talk slower. That'll make it easier, but then I'm going to take longer to get the same
7610580	7615640	information to the ground. That means it's going to take more passes to do that. I can try to
7615640	7620620	reduce the noise in the environment, but there's a limit to what I can do there, especially for
7620620	7626420	existing systems. And I try to move to higher frequencies, but that means new technologies
7626420	7632520	often. We're getting a crowding right now because a lot of the frequencies that space has traditionally
7632520	7638600	used are starting to get more terrestrial applications as well. And when there's a contest
7638600	7643860	between space application and terrestrial applications, terrestrial tends to win,
7643860	7650460	which means space is getting crowded out of its traditional S-band, C-band frequencies. In fact,
7650460	7657260	there's a slew of satellite orders just came in this year because they're trying to provide better
7657260	7662320	utilization for some of the C-band frequencies that are available, which is good news to people
7662320	7670100	building satellites. So there's a push to move space to higher frequencies, which is good for
7670240	7674100	a lot of reasons, but bad because we don't necessarily have all the infrastructure in
7674100	7679500	place. It's going to represent some big investment to start moving your frequencies around.
7679900	7685620	So those are issues we have to think about when it comes to these things.
7687240	7692980	So those are the key issues with communication. So again, I wanted you to understand
7693560	7699460	fundamentally how communication works. We've got the two cans in the string, we've got our carrier,
7699460	7704380	and here we have our carrier wave, which is some frequency that's been allocated to us,
7704380	7709460	and then we're going to modulate our information on top of that. When we talk, we want people to
7709460	7714660	hear us, which means we need the energy per bit to be greater than the noise. So that means I only
7714660	7719980	have so many things I can play with there in terms of how loud I talk, how big my antenna is,
7719980	7726920	distance, frequency, language, speed, environment. And then we have some limitations we have to deal
7726920	7732940	with, physical, technical, legal, and a number of trade-offs then that impact what we can and can't
7732940	7740700	do with that. Any questions on RF? So you just got about a semester course on RF communication in
7740700	7746080	15 minutes or so, but I want to make sure you understand where the... because it's fairly
7746080	7752100	technical, but it's a technical because it really impacts what you can and can't do. A lot of it's
7752100	7758180	physics and technology, so we have to be aware of what those limitations are, both from a security
7758180	7765580	standpoint and a vulnerability standpoint. Any questions on any of that? How's my EB over NO
7765580	7776560	coming through? So far so good? Nancy, can you hear me? All good?
7778660	7780560	All good. Loud and clear. All right.
7780560	7785620	Everything sounds great so far, yeah. Should say 3 dB, that would be good.
7786440	7792620	So, all right. Well, let's look then at what's happening in the data handling system.
7792620	7797980	So the data handling system now is really our brains of our spacecraft. So it's doing all the
7797980	7803140	thinking for us. And so it's got a lot to do, right? If you think of it as a to-do list, it's a
7803140	7808500	long to-do list. It's got to respond to commands from the ground. It's got to come up with telemetry
7808500	7815760	from the health and status as well as the payload. It's got to boot up on its own and self-test,
7815760	7821400	and it has to fix errors if it finds them. And it has to control everything on the satellite. It has
7821400	7825360	to control the heat. It has to control power. It has to control the pointing. It has to control
7825360	7832880	rockets. All that stuff has to happen on board that. And it has to be ready to be updated.
7832880	7836940	So over-the-air updates, kind of like a Tesla, it's got to be ready for over-the-air updates
7836940	7841540	whenever they're ready. And that could be patches. It could be complete software updates
7841980	7847760	over the life of the mission. So that's a lot. On top of that, it's got to do it in the space
7847760	7852340	environment when we just talked about how nasty that place is. So I have to deal with all that
7852340	7858900	on top of everything else. So it makes this data handling problem pretty difficult.
7859380	7864920	So that brains of the operation then is tightly coupled to the communication system because
7864920	7870140	it doesn't do me any good to handle data if I can't communicate it. So sometimes it'll be called
7870140	7874940	the command and data handling system. Sometimes the communication data handling system. Depends
7874940	7880300	on who you talk to and which organization they're in. But it's all about moving the data. So I can't
7880300	7883620	communicate the data if I can't handle it. And just because I handle it, I still need to
7883620	7889440	communicate it. So all pretty much goes together. So what's in there? So let's look under the hood
7889440	7893460	here and see what's there. And not too surprisingly, we're basically talking about a
7893460	7898220	computer, right? So what's in there? Well, we've got some sort of central processing unit, probably
7899100	7905240	multiple central processing units. We have memory, RAM and ROM, pretty much, you know, solid state
7905240	7912280	memory these days. Don't fly tape drives anymore. And then input output devices. So space business
7912280	7917040	tends to lean heavily on standards. So there are a number of data bus standards that are fairly
7917040	7923360	common. One is called MIL-STD-1553. There's another one called SpaceWire. And they'll, you know, the
7923360	7927980	1553, I want to say is what about one to three megabits or something like that data rate, which
7927980	7934100	is fine for most applications on a satellite. And people build equipment to that standard. So it's
7934100	7940100	easy to get to. And then we have a lot of other components too. So we have transducers that are
7940100	7945200	measuring stuff all over our spacecraft. So whether it's temperature or pressure or whatever,
7945200	7951500	we have transducers that act as analog to digital converters to, you know, turn that
7952000	7958080	analog world into a digital world so that we can do stuff with it. We make a lot of use on
7958080	7964760	space systems on field programmable gate arrays, FPGAs. There are fairly
7964760	7973360	versatile processor units that you can program in firmware to do any number of things. We use
7973360	7979760	them for digital signal processing and other kind of well-defined tasks on board a spacecraft. So
7979760	7986280	you'll see a lot of FPGAs show up. And then sometimes application-specific integrated circuits
7986960	7991220	that may be a custom circuit that are done for a specific application. Again,
7991220	7997780	maybe digital signal processing or maybe some particular payload interaction or something
7997780	8003140	that we're doing. That's all the hardware. Of course, the hardware is kind of the easy bit.
8003140	8008040	And then we get to the software. And without software, we got nothing. We just got a box
8008040	8014880	of silicon. So it's the software that's enabling. So we more and more think of spacecraft as a box
8014880	8021940	that flies software. We think of software as the complexity sponge for how everything gets done.
8021940	8026020	And as you go around the spacecraft and look at every single subsystem,
8026020	8033340	pretty much every subsystem needs some amount of software, some more than others. But it's pretty
8033340	8039400	hard to do much of anything without software. And software, and that's true across aerospace.
8039400	8043800	There was a gentleman giving a talk a number of years ago from Lockheed Martin. I think he was
8043900	8048160	a chief technology officer, chief scientist. And he was talking about that. I think he was talking
8048160	8056300	about the F-22. And he said that half the cost of the F-22 was in testing, and half of that was
8056300	8062300	in software. And he made the kind of the joke, and he said he was only half joking, that Lockheed might
8062300	8068840	be better off giving away airplanes and charging for software. And that's kind of where we're going,
8068840	8074780	that the price of hardware is asymptoting to zero, and the price of software is asymptoting to
8074780	8080800	infinity. So most of the cost these days is in software development, testing, maintenance.
8081980	8086980	We're kind of shifting to a world of DevOps, where we're kind of continuously maintaining
8086980	8092880	and developing your code. Because that's where the functionality is. And I'm a hardware guy
8092880	8097940	saying this, and having to admit how important software is. So this is where we're going.
8097940	8103320	And we're depending on it more and more. So software use has been going up following
8103320	8109280	Augustine's law, which is 10x every 10 years or so. It's funny, you go back to
8110120	8116740	1960s, and NASA flew Mariner 6, I think it went to Venus, with 30 lines of code,
8116740	8123060	three zero lines of code. Now it's probably machine code, and all of you who do software
8123060	8127520	know that lines of code is a terrible metric. But we use it anyway, because
8128100	8133160	if you can't measure what's important, measure what you can and argue that it's important.
8133700	8140020	But we, you know, so now fast forward today, and when they launched the rover on its way to
8140020	8145160	Mars last week, it probably had something like 2 million lines of code on it. 2 million lines of
8145160	8151580	code is not impressive when you compare it to a car. So a new car probably has 100 million lines
8151580	8158200	of code. But space is different, right? So we're, you know, even so space is going up exponentially
8158200	8163560	in its name, in its use of code. And the way we use code is still different from from a car,
8163560	8168080	where we have to, we have a lot more demands on space software than we have even on automotive
8168080	8174780	software. And, and that creates, again, more of a threat space for us to be concerned about.
8174780	8180620	And when we start depending on code, of course, code can let us down. So this is that famous
8180620	8188620	example of what happened with the Mars Climate Orbiter. And Mars Climate Orbiter had, was on
8188620	8194440	its way to Mars, was going to inter-orbit around Mars back in 99. And the way this mission was,
8194440	8199920	and I'll play the video there, so it was on its way to Mars, it was going to inter-orbit around Mars,
8199920	8205300	and it was going to fire its rocket to inter-orbit. Remember, it's on that hyperbolic trajectory,
8205300	8209600	and it was going to just fly by Mars if it didn't slow down. So it gets ready to slow down to
8209600	8217340	inter-orbit around Mars, but wait for it, they were only off by 169 kilometers,
8217340	8222300	which means they re-entered, they entered the orbit of atmosphere of Mars and burned up, and
8222300	8229860	there they went. So all, all, all because of a units problem. This is the infamous units problem
8229860	8234200	you might have heard about. So what happened here is that there were, the way this mission was
8234200	8240220	operated, is you had operators in Denver who were keeping track of the, of the bus, basically,
8240220	8245000	and then you had the mission control, which was at Jet Propulsion Lab out in California,
8245000	8250600	who was managing the mission. The guys managing the bus out in Denver were keeping track every time
8250600	8256000	the satellite fired these little rockets, and they'd use these rockets for attitude control,
8256000	8261440	but they also had slight impact on the, on the trajectory as well. And they were keeping
8261440	8267080	track of all these rocket firings, and they put it into a file, and then they'd ship it out to JPL,
8267080	8272160	where they would actually model the trajectory. Well, the guys in Denver were putting it in the
8272160	8279400	file, modeling it as the thrust being in pounds, pounds force, which is an English unit, and then
8279400	8284960	they shipped it out to JPL, where they assumed it was in Newtons. Well, what's the difference between
8285140	8290060	a pound and a Newton? It's a factor of four, and I, the way I tell Americans to remember this is
8290060	8295580	when they go to McDonald's in Paris, because every American who goes to Paris goes to McDonald's,
8295580	8300200	that they should order a Newton burger instead of a quarter pounder, because that's how you remember
8300200	8305220	that. Not a true thing, they don't really sell Newton burgers, but there you go. So they were
8305220	8310780	off by a factor of four, which, you know, again, very, they weren't firing these rockets very much,
8310780	8317420	so it was a relatively small correction. And to me, there's an interesting Murphy's Law thing going
8317420	8323500	on here. You know, you think about it, they could have been off 160 kilometers in the other
8323500	8329220	direction, right? I mean, left, right, up, down. It just happened to be down. You know, talk about
8329220	8334480	flipping a coin and having to go the wrong way. It's simply the way it ended up. If they'd ended
8334480	8339580	up 160 kilometers further away from Mars, they would have still entered orbit, and they would
8339580	8344080	have said, oh, wow, look, and they would have been fine. But because they flipped the coin the wrong
8344080	8349660	way, and they ended up closer to Mars, they burned up and all that because of, you know, the way they
8349660	8355640	managed the software there. So they didn't, the software management development plan wasn't,
8355640	8360580	was not fully followed. And they hadn't actually, interestingly enough, they never categorized this
8360580	8367580	as critical software. Pete's asking how much margin of error do they allow for? You'd think
8367580	8372960	they would allow for more than that 100, you know, you know, they made it, you know, 40 million
8372960	8378100	kilometers and we're only off by 160. So you'd think they'd have a little bit more margin for
8378100	8384600	error than that, you know, because, you know, once you're, you know, if you're trying to get into a
8384600	8390720	400 kilometer orbit around Mars, and you instead entered a 600 kilometer orbit, the cost to change
8390720	8396360	that is relatively small. So I don't know if they were just trying to, you know, show off and see
8396360	8401740	how closely they could get, but that did not work out for them. But you're spot on there
8401740	8407500	on that question. Any questions about this particular debacle?
8409180	8413800	There's other examples of software getting us in trouble in the space industry.
8413800	8419980	There's the maiden flight of Ariane 5, where they reused software from Ariane 4, because,
8419980	8425340	you know, heck, it was just a different rocket, why not? And that reused software caused a trajectory
8425340	8430960	deviation, which caused the rocket to blow up. So these kind of things can get us in trouble.
8431020	8438340	Mars Polar Lander, one line, basically one requirement was not allocated to software.
8438480	8442040	And so you can't really blame software on that one, it was really more of a system engineering
8442740	8447860	failure. But, you know, these sometimes, you know, seemingly simple things
8447860	8452100	can cause total disaster on systems like this.
8453420	8458540	And this is just, this is all us doing it to ourselves, right? You know, let alone some
8458540	8464420	nefarious actor getting in there and helping us along, you know, so we do enough damage to
8464420	8471040	ourselves without that. The lander, another lander was a European lander, Skier Pirelli,
8471040	8476020	which I've never pronounced correctly, but he was the guy that discovered the canals on Mars.
8476020	8482580	That crashed. Again, that was not, again, probably not a software error, but not completely well
8482580	8489180	defined software in terms of how it handled the excursions on that inertial measurement unit. So,
8489180	8493480	you know, there's always, you always kind of point to a root cause problem.
8493520	8498020	But, you know, again, the space is hard enough without people doing bad things to us.
8499840	8507040	All right. Any other questions on that? So, key design issues then to think about for
8507040	8514220	data handling. You need to know what level of autonomy your spacecraft has to deal with,
8514220	8520240	and the more autonomy, the more complexity. You have to understand all the tasks. What are you
8520240	8525020	expecting your software to do, and where will it get done? We have some choices. We can do
8525020	8529440	things on board. We can do them on the ground. We can do it in hardware. We can do it in software.
8529440	8534420	We can do it in software. We can do it in firmware. You have to understand the environment that
8534420	8540800	you're going to be dealing with. How bad will that ionizing radiation environment be? NASA
8540800	8546360	has a mission at Jupiter right now called Juno, and they had to take all the avionics and they
8546360	8551780	put it inside a titanium vault, and they used the best possible avionics that they could get
8551780	8556640	and still did all the shielding. And so far, it's been holding up. They thought it would only last
8556640	8561600	about an Earth year, but I think they're going on, what, three years? I haven't seen much report on
8561600	8568200	what their single event upset issues are, but they seem to be still doing okay. But Jupiter has an
8568200	8573300	even worse radiation environment than the Earth because it has a more intense magnetic field.
8574420	8577980	NASA is talking about landing on one of the moons of Jupiter, Europa,
8577980	8583680	where they have the ice fields, and under the ice, there's an ocean where the intelligent whales live.
8584040	8588680	But they think when they land on that surface, on the ice there, they may be only good for a
8588680	8594840	month or two because of the radiation environment there. So luckily, the intelligent whales are
8594840	8600660	protected by all the ice, so they're good, but they probably mutate a lot. What was the thing
8600660	8608640	from mutated sea bass? These are mutated whales. Anyway, so the other thing I need to think about
8608640	8614140	are developer needs, right? So I've got to develop this code. How are we going to build it? What
8614140	8619760	language? What development environment? What tools? How am I going to test it? And then we have all
8619760	8624040	the operational abilities to consider, flexibility, maintainability, and we should also throw
8624040	8629000	sustainability in there. One of the challenges we face in the space industry especially
8629000	8634740	is that we use, you know, we tend to use stuff for decades. When the last space shuttle
8634740	8640780	mission landed, the last HAL programmer lost their job because the shuttle was
8640780	8647920	programmed using a language called HAL, circa, you know, state-of-the-art 1975, which by, you know,
8647920	8654680	2005 was no longer a thing. So, you know, when we're trying to maintain software for decades,
8654680	8659920	that creates huge problems for us and, of course, threat surfaces as well.
8660780	8665120	So these are the takeaways then for the data handling, understanding what it needs to do,
8665120	8669700	how it has to correct for errors, the hardware-software interactions that we have to deal
8669700	8675100	with, and all the software functions that have to be performed both on board and on the ground
8675100	8682360	for a data handling system. So takeaways from a cyberspace lens here, that first of all,
8682360	8689920	RF security is a relative small sub-niche of cybersecurity, because we tend to focus,
8689920	8694180	as you might expect, more on, you know, fiber, because that's what most data is moving around.
8694180	8700440	But RF is a unique, you know, we are uniquely dependent on RF in the space industry. Now,
8700440	8703860	and getting access to that equipment is relatively easy, but as we mentioned,
8703860	8708960	everybody tends to encrypt their stuff, so you have to know their encryption capability.
8709610	8713180	But there are a lot of hardware-software vendors out there, there are multiple development
8713180	8718240	environments, there are legacy languages, and all those create additional vulnerabilities.
8718560	8723840	And then, of course, space relies heavily on software, and the more people get involved there,
8723840	8730380	the more, you know, both grounded on board, the more additional vulnerabilities we end up making.
8732220	8739780	Any questions on the vulnerability section, on the RF or data handling?
8753100	8758740	How are they looking at future AI? Yeah, AI is an interesting discussion. I mean,
8758740	8763640	space, I'd say, is fairly far behind on that in a lot of ways, because, again,
8763640	8769600	we tend to be pretty conservative in how we approach that. There, you know, I've seen
8769600	8775640	discussion of AI more for things like data mining on going through, you know, Kepler's data for
8775640	8782120	looking for planets, you know, using it, you know, for post-processing, but not so much for, you
8782120	8788000	know, real-time. I remember even back in the 80s, there was talk about, you know, expert systems
8788000	8793940	supporting operators, but, you know, it's amazing that even 30 years later, that still has not
8793940	8800240	really become a thing. So, you know, that's kind of that trade-off between autonomy versus
8800240	8806960	automation that we get a lot. So I don't see a whole lot of talk, maybe something that maybe
8808280	8812600	Terry might have a better insight there, but I haven't heard a lot of talk in the space business
8812600	8820900	about more emphasis on AI for certainly for operations. Decision support, yeah, maybe for
8820900	8825660	operators, but again, I haven't... I remember that being a quite a bit of talk many years ago,
8825660	8830920	but I haven't heard much recently about that. Terry, do you have an update on AI applications?
8831400	8836300	I don't, not in the space arena. I haven't really seen anything there either.
8836560	8842040	Yeah, it's again, we tend to be pretty slow to the party for new technologies like that.
8845670	8850490	We're going to find the slides, Meno. They are posted and maybe if Matt's on, he can tell you
8850490	8857070	where they are in the Discord channel. Are they in the Discord channel, Matt, the slides?
8859710	8864730	They are in the Discord channel. Yeah, Meno, they're there and if you can't find them,
8864730	8871650	email me and I can always send them to you. Okay, let's pull up... I'm going to do two things here.
8873070	8878070	I'm going to give you your cyber challenge. So here's your cyber challenge for the day.
8878790	8882890	So I'm going to go through the challenge. Then I'm going to post the poll.
8883030	8887330	Then you can take the poll while you're thinking about the challenge. And then we'll get back
8887330	8894790	together and talk about it. So here's our scenario, right? So there's a company called
8894790	8899690	Wiley Imaging and they've been operating a high resolution commercial remote sensing satellite
8899690	8905410	now for about two years. And the US government is one of their biggest customers. It's in a
8905410	8910910	sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of 710 kilometers. And it has a node crossing of 1030
8910910	8916570	southbound every morning. When it crosses the equator going south,
8916570	8921710	the local time is 1030 in the morning. That's what we call it, sun-synchronous. That means
8921710	8928150	you get shadows. You get mid-morning shadows every time you fly over the equator like that.
8928770	8934470	Wiley operates their own ground station here in Colorado, but they lease access to two other
8934470	8941830	ground stations in Norway and Alaska. They're up at the high latitude and this is a sun-synchronous,
8941830	8947290	which means it's nearly a polar orbit, which means that Norway and Alaska ground stations
8947290	8953910	can see that satellite nearly every orbit, which is convenient. The satellite was built by Acme
8953910	8958310	Aerospace in Iowa and there are two other satellites currently in development that plan
8958310	8965690	to be launched next year. So that's the background. So the issue is, during the last two passes,
8965690	8971530	we had a Passover in Norway and then we had a Passover in Colorado. The operators noticed bad headers
8971530	8976870	on about 10 percent of the health and status telemetry data packets. They didn't see any
8976870	8982530	problem with the payload data packets. And it's actually not unusual that you have
8982530	8987810	separate downlinks. You have a downlink for health and status and you have a
8987810	8993830	separate downlink, separate frequency for payload data. So the fact that those are different is not
8994370	8999090	too amazing. That's actually kind of normal. But they only saw the problem with the
8999090	9004550	health and status packets and it's on the header on the packets. But this is
9004550	9008670	about a thousand times worse than they would have expected because we usually plan for like
9008670	9014830	10 to the minus 5, 10 to the minus 6, let's say one in a million bits to have a problem.
9014830	9017770	And here you're seeing about a thousand times worse than that or maybe even
9017770	9021990	worse than a thousand times worse. So it's a lot worse than they would have expected.
9022950	9026270	So here are your challenge questions. So first of all, how would you determine
9026830	9035250	if this issue were due to natural or man-made causes? What would your potential reasons be
9035250	9042090	if it were natural causes? Assuming though that it's malicious cause, what opportunities
9042090	9048110	would a bad actor have had? Assuming it's malicious cause, what vulnerabilities could
9048250	9053210	a bad actor have exploited? And then given there are two other satellites in development,
9053210	9060050	what other design or operational changes could we think about to prevent future issues?
9060050	9065430	So those are the questions I want you to ponder. While you're pondering that,
9065430	9069930	I'm going to put up the poll, last poll of the day here.
9071250	9076950	So you can... I'll let you multitask here. So you can do the poll and then think about the
9077490	9081750	cyber challenge. You can do the cyber challenge and then come back and think about the poll.
9082030	9090330	But let's take about 10 minutes to go through that. And I'll give you 10 minutes to take the
9090330	9095150	poll and think about the challenge. And then we'll get back together and we'll see if some
9095430	9104950	brave soul online here wants to volunteer their answer to the challenge. So if you have a
9104950	9110390	multi-deck slide presentation in the next 10 minutes, I'll let you share that with the team.
9110390	9116590	So let's take about 10 minutes and think about the poll questions and the challenge scenario.
9116590	9120150	And then we'll bring it back together, review the poll, and then we'll step through the
9120730	9126030	how to think about this particular challenge problem. And then we'll wrap it up and we'll
9126030	9131490	be able to call it a day here on time. So go do one or the other or both,
9131490	9263390	and we'll check back here in about 10 minutes. If anybody has any questions about the challenge,
9263390	9365190	just let me know and we can try to clarify things for you. We'll be looking for a brave volunteer
9365190	9466590	who wants to tell us how to solve the challenge here. And I've also posted an end-of-course survey.
9466590	9473530	We can't use polls for surveys because the data is not persistent in Zoom, so we're using a
9473530	9478510	separate polling thing. But if you could follow the link to do that poll, we'd appreciate your
9478510	9482550	feedback. That'd be great to help us figure out how to improve the course for next time.
9483250	9489390	So I'll give you another five minutes or so to think about the polls, our poll questions here,
9489390	9494030	and then we'll pull together and talk about the challenge and then wrap it up.
9562570	9566610	All right, not much attendance on the polls here, but let's go ahead and
9567370	9570430	close that out and then we'll talk about our challenge.
9572010	9578210	So, which of the following changes would not increase EV over NO? So data rate. So
9578210	9583930	making a higher data rate would be the wrong way to go if I'm trying to increase EV over NO.
9584550	9589690	To jam a satellite, you need to have some noise at the receiver. That would do the trick.
9590510	9599190	Threat service software has not been static over the years. It's been growing. To spoof a
9599190	9603690	satellite, you need to know all of the above things, which is a lot of things you have to
9603690	9611150	be aware of, which means you probably need some sort of way to get into the details of people's
9611150	9618350	design requirements. And space software is both light and agile. Actually, no, we're kind of
9618350	9624310	the opposite of light and agile in the space business. All right, well, let's talk about the
9624310	9634670	challenge. Do I have any brave soul online who wants to tackle the questions? Anybody feel
9634670	9645030	confident about talking through how you think about these challenge questions? Only one person
9645030	9652430	at a time. That's the nice thing about virtual presentations, the ability to remain anonymous
9652430	9657650	is much higher. When you're in a classroom, it's sort of kind of hard to hide. You know, I can
9657650	9666090	stand, I can hover over you and intimidate you to tackle it. It's less intimidating if we talk
9666090	9674250	through it together. There we go. Let's do that. So, let's kind of talk through the
9674250	9680750	background first. So, remember the background information here. So, I just want to highlight
9680750	9685170	some things that come out of the background, you know, and as we approach these, you know, as you
9685170	9691270	go forward and start thinking and working in this environment, yeah, we think about, you know, what
9691270	9697110	kind of information should I be keying in on? So, on the first bullet there, we want to key in on
9697110	9702230	the fact that the U.S. government is one of their largest customers. So, certainly everybody in the
9702230	9707750	world is sort of fair game, but the U.S. government is sort of a high profile target. So, if you're
9707750	9713730	supporting U.S. government, you're kind of putting a target on your back. So, that raises the threat
9714630	9719550	potential up quite a bit, just the fact that they got, you know, government's one of their big
9719550	9724710	customers. The next bullet has to do with the orbital mechanics, which we covered here within
9724710	9732530	the class. So, just the type of orbit I'm in will, in this particular orbit, will limit the number
9732530	9739470	of times a day that somebody could have access to that satellite from a given site. So, that
9739470	9744550	really restricts when somebody could have had access to that satellite, you know, line of sight.
9744550	9750090	So, that is a constraint that kind of narrows the window there in which somebody could have had
9750090	9756510	access. The other thing to clue in on there is that the Wiley is operating, they're leasing
9756510	9762410	ground stations from in Norway and Alaska. So, these are lease stations. So, these are companies
9762410	9769730	that are basically just selling time on their ground site. So, these people, you know, so, you
9769730	9774230	know, anytime like I'm leasing something, I don't have a lot of control over the software, the
9774230	9779350	procedures, the personnel. You know, these people are just doing a job passing data from one person
9779350	9783750	to another. They're going to work, you know, get my data right now, and 10 minutes from now, they'll
9783750	9790110	get data from somebody else. They don't have any particular loyalties to me, my company, my data,
9790110	9795710	my program, or anything, right? They're just doing a job. And that means I don't have a lot of insight
9795710	9801790	too, because I'm basically buying by the minute. I probably can't demand to see all their software,
9801790	9808670	procedures, or security reviews, or, you know, polygraph interviews with people if they do that.
9808670	9814170	I don't have any right to ask that stuff, right? I'm just buying by the yard. And then finally,
9814170	9818670	we got two other satellites in development, which is maybe a good thing. We ought to think about,
9818670	9823770	okay, well, if there is a hard problem that we've come up with, maybe there's a chance to
9824550	9830950	resolve that. Pete's saying, can you put that in the contract? You can try. But, you know, if
9831360	9838490	I'm Universal Space Network, I probably have 100 customers, and I got one small customer coming in
9838490	9843660	demanding a bunch of stuff for security, I might just tell them to take a hike. Like, sorry,
9844410	9851030	I don't have the time to give you that, or I'm going to charge you a lot for that. So it just
9851030	9857510	depends on how big of a lever you have. And if you're one of N customers, you probably don't
9857510	9864250	have that big of a lever on that. So the other thing then to think about from an issue standpoint,
9865510	9873590	so as I said, you know, this issue only impacted the health and status, which is not necessarily
9873590	9880590	unusual. So that should not... it's not overtly suspicious. So that shouldn't necessarily raise
9880590	9888130	any alarm bells, but it's a useful thing to be aware of. And so it appears the problem is
9888130	9893590	just in how the protocols are implemented. So this tends to be a software thing where, you know,
9893590	9898070	you're going to be taking all these ones and zeros and organizing them into packets and adding
9898070	9904310	headers and footers and things like that. But it appears to be random, but it only appears
9904310	9909110	to be on the header. So, but again, depending on how that packet protocol works, that is not
9909110	9915410	necessarily suspicious either. You know, so, but, you know, but these are all things that just file
9915410	9920410	away in the back of your mind before we tackle the question. So we always want to, you know,
9920410	9925290	make sure we understand the lay of the land before we dive into the details of the question.
9925350	9932030	So first question is, well, how do we know that if it's natural or manmade? So I put up here what's
9932030	9937490	called a fishbone diagram or root cause analysis or Ishikawa diagram. Some of you may have seen
9937490	9944050	these before, but they're a very useful tool to try to get at root cause. And we do it with
9944050	9949370	without prejudice. We just, it's a brainstorming tool. And you can think of it as a mind map if
9949370	9954630	you're used to mind maps. But so we say we kind of list, and you've all seen detective movies,
9954630	9958970	right, where the detectives have the big board and they have the suspects and they have, you know,
9958970	9963190	yarn going between everybody in circles and all that. I mean, that's kind of what this is. This
9963190	9969850	is our suspect board. And so we say, well, who are the usual suspects, right? And equipment,
9969850	9974950	process, people, materials, environment management, those tend to be the usual suspects.
9975830	9981570	And we would lay out within those, okay, from an equipment standpoint, what could cause this
9981570	9986150	problem? What from a process standpoint, what could cause this problem? And we're not trying
9986150	9992270	to solve the problem. We're trying to say, who are the suspects in this problem? And then we can
9992270	9999910	start whittling away. Once we've defined the trade space of options, then we can start
9999910	10004470	whittling away. We can go interview the suspects, see if they have an alibi. If they have an alibi,
10004470	10009930	then okay, then they're not a suspect anymore. But we'd be thinking about equipment on board.
10010230	10015330	Okay, well, what about that equipment, hardware, software? Are there any processes? Maybe somebody
10015330	10022370	on the ground did something wrong in the configuration, and it's being garbled on the
10022370	10026430	ground. Maybe it's coming, it's fine on the spacecraft, it's getting garbled somewhere on
10026430	10030690	the ground. Maybe there's people, maybe people that had poor training. Maybe there's people
10030690	10038050	that are maliciously, you know, scrambling this on their own. I don't know. Environment, of course,
10038050	10043990	would be the big thing to look at, single event upsets. And what we might do there is call up the
10043990	10051090	space weather people and find out if there was any sort of large coronal mass ejection
10051090	10056830	somewhere in that time period. You know, we're trying to correlate, you know, what the time,
10056830	10061850	because we can sort of narrow down when it happened, because it seemed to be fine one pass,
10061850	10067150	and then it wasn't fine the next pass. So that narrows down the window there. If there was any
10067150	10072550	sort of specific thing going on, maybe there was a solar event that could have happened in that
10072550	10076990	time frame, or maybe it was going through this area of the Van Allen belts, we call the South
10076990	10084490	Atlantic Anomaly. You know, any of those things could, you know, raise our suspicion level.
10086030	10089950	You're saying wouldn't that affect everything, not just the heterogeneity? Well, it's random,
10089950	10095850	right? So all I need is one silver bullet to go into my software, and I don't know what it's
10095850	10101870	going to do. You know, and if it just happened to affect the one place where that gets encoded
10101870	10109530	on the headers, then, you know, I can't immediately rule that out. I mean, yeah, it's high, you know,
10109530	10115550	low probability, but I don't, I wouldn't immediately rule that out, right? So I want to
10115550	10118390	take a look at it, and I want to do this systematically. What we're trying to do is
10118390	10123370	have an, you know, an unbiased, you know, let's not jump to conclusion and, you know, start launching
10123370	10128430	nuclear weapons at bad guys because they attacked our satellite. We want to, you know, let's find
10128570	10134490	a smoking gun, but let's do it methodically. So this is how I would go about trying to,
10135070	10139930	to come to that root cause. And we may decide, no, there, you know, there's the probability of
10139930	10146410	this being natural is just too low. It has to, and, you know, the, the impact is too,
10146410	10153310	too systematic. It's not random enough. And therefore we might, you know, start to suspect,
10153310	10157130	you know, people, which is, you know, malicious actors in that case.
10157770	10163150	If it were environment, which is question two, again, we've been, as we've been talking, it's
10163150	10168870	most likely a single event upset that could cause that, but, but not necessarily. It could be a,
10168870	10174290	maybe thermal stress led to a problem with a processor or something like that. So, you know,
10174290	10179310	there are other potential environmental causes as well, but single event upsets tends to be
10179310	10185330	one that causes these sort of random events. But assuming it is malicious going to question three,
10185330	10189190	where are the opportunities? Well, I mean, if it happened between passes,
10189770	10194570	that's a pretty narrow opportunity. I say, I mean, maybe an hour, they could have had opportunity to
10194570	10199610	do some sense, something directly in there. And again, that's not out of the question,
10199610	10204690	but that would mean they would have had to actually command our satellite directly,
10204690	10207350	which means they would have had to know all those things we talked about. They'd have to
10207350	10212550	have the frequency, they'd have to have the encryption, they'd have to have the command codes.
10213010	10219270	They'd really have to know our system very well. Not out of the question, but again,
10219270	10224590	fairly low likelihood. So it would seem it's probably more likely that that
10225090	10232090	came in somewhere sooner. And maybe it came in as a Trojan horse to be, you know, with a,
10232090	10237250	with a time tag that says after, you know, you know, 30 hours from now or 30 weeks from now,
10238170	10243130	implement this. And so, and so who knows when it was injected? It could have been
10243750	10250850	all the way back to the factory, right? So we don't know at this point. But those are,
10250850	10255470	so that's, that's the malicious thing. That's the scary thing about code is that, you know,
10255470	10259370	you can put code in that can be sitting there, you know, kind of a sleeper agent
10259370	10266110	to get, get activated who knows when. So what are the vulnerabilities then? Just,
10266110	10269850	you know, again, if I'm talking about hundreds, you know, a satellite like this probably has
10269850	10274630	hundreds of thousands of lines of code. Yeah, you could be hiding in there somewhere
10275230	10281410	and maybe get overlooked. You can get overlooked during testing. In the fact that we've got these,
10281410	10286110	we're using the ground stations that to me, that's a, that's a red flag. And it's just,
10286110	10291550	you've got things outside your span of control, direct span of control that can be
10291550	10297370	entry points for bad actors there. And then finally, we, because we have these guys still
10297370	10303790	in the barn being, being developed. If it turns out the problem is a natural environment problem
10303790	10308550	that our, our hardware maybe is not robust enough against single event upsets. I mean,
10308550	10313890	we could consider swapping out processors. I mean, that's a pretty major design change,
10313890	10318270	especially fairly late in the game. But if it turns out we're particularly vulnerable,
10319550	10326410	or maybe there's some thermal issue that caused it. We may have to take a serious look at our
10326410	10333790	design to see if we can mitigate that in, but through a design change. If it's code,
10333790	10338010	we may have to do a full scrub. We may have to go back through and look at all the software
10338010	10343430	grounded on board to see if there's anything hiding in there. And maybe we need to go take
10343510	10348510	a look at our personnel. Maybe go to do a, you know, security check on our people and see if
10348510	10353610	there's any, anything suspicious going on there. And somebody, you know, driving to work in a
10353610	10359910	Ferrari and last week they had a, you know, junker car. And you know, where'd they get all the money
10359910	10364410	all of a sudden kind of thing. You know, that might look suspicious. So, so those are things
10364410	10369390	we could look at. Pete's asking if it was a code update, how would they consider do that for ones
10369390	10377250	on orbit? Well, we can, we actually can change code on orbit pretty well. I mean, again, depending
10377250	10382910	on the extent, you probably, you couldn't change your entire architecture maybe so much, but,
10382910	10388630	but if it turns out that was, you know, this was lurking in one unit or module of code,
10388630	10394850	we could, that would be a, you know, not, I would say easy thing to do, but it's a doable thing
10394850	10400770	to re overwrite that code or patch around it or something like that. Yeah. We, we make code
10400770	10406130	changes fairly often. I mean, you know, almost, you know, I would say routinely are making code
10406130	10412570	changes on spacecraft. So that, that would not be a difficult thing to do depending on the extent.
10412570	10418530	Now, again, if it's, you know, if it's corrupted badly, that might take a lot of surgery to fix,
10418530	10425750	but, and we may not have a choice there if this is a problem. Anybody see, did I miss anything
10425750	10432190	there? Any, any other issues or ideas that maybe we might want to think about as we tackle this,
10432190	10456760	this challenge? All right. Well, we did pretty well then today. So let's recap what we did today.
10456760	10463520	So we, we went through, we started with context. So we looked at that mission architecture
10463520	10469100	and the reasons we went to space. We talked about opportunities. So we looked at orbits
10469100	10477300	and operations, got you all up to speed on how to do a, you know, to become orbital mechanics.
10477300	10483600	So you're getting ready to get out your wrench and fix an orbit next time. We looked at threats,
10483600	10488260	natural and human threats, especially those natural threats and how insidious they can be.
10488260	10492940	And, you know, just the, the denials of service we get on a day-to-day basis, just because
10492940	10498720	space is a hard place to be. And then we finished up looking at those vulnerabilities. So the RF,
10498720	10505640	RF links, spent some time looking at how we make sure that we get viable connections through the
10505640	10510640	RF links. And then talked about the data architecture and overall data systems
10510640	10516840	ground and on board that also become potential threat surfaces for us. So that was what we tried
10516840	10522340	to cover. These were our objectives. So again, we're trying to climb that learning trajectory
10522340	10527600	there from, from the pad all the way into orbit. Wanted you to have some core space knowledge.
10527600	10531800	So you feel a little more confident talking to people about space issues and some of the
10531800	10536580	limitations and capabilities and threats and vulnerabilities that are out there. Wanted you
10536580	10542040	understand some of the trade-offs, especially as they apply to cybersecurity domain. Things like
10542040	10546720	the access that you get from orbital mechanics and the, all the different things that happen
10546720	10552920	in operations. There's nine different things that we laid out of, of activities and operations and,
10552920	10559980	and any one of those can be a potential entree for a threat. The natural environment, I hope you had
10560240	10566080	a, an appreciation for how hard that environment is just, you know, on a good day. And now when
10566080	10571520	we throw bad actors in there, what, what, you know, relatively small changes can have big impact
10571520	10578640	on overall mission operations. And then finally wanted you to be able to step back from some real
10578640	10583240	world scenarios and apply the knowledge that we gained here in the class and be able to look at
10583240	10588680	those critically to understand what kind of issues might come up and how would we think through these
10588680	10593800	issues? And we're going to see these issues, I think, come up more and more over time. And we
10593800	10598780	have to be able to, you know, differentiate the natural, naturally occurring problems from the
10598780	10603840	unnaturally occurring ones, and then figure out what to do about it. I mean, we've got a,
10603840	10609560	there's a lot of potential holes to plug here in terms of vulnerabilities. And we may be,
10609560	10614060	you know, running around playing holes or all our life, but we have to be able to ready to
10614060	10620060	identify those holes and think about what kinds of things we can do to address them going forward.
10620740	10625180	So we thank you for your time and attention. Thanks, Terry. Thanks, Jason,
10625720	10634260	for this. And we'll, I'll probably stop recording at this point. And I'll just kind of throw it
10634260	10640700	open to any other questions. I'll hang around as long as anybody needs if they have questions,
10640700	10642660	and we will go.